Jê languages
Jê | |
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Jê–Kaingang, Gê, Ye | |
Ethnicity | Gê peoples |
Geographic distribution | Brazil |
Linguistic classification | Macro-Jê
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Subdivisions | |
Glottolog | jeee1236 |
![]() Jê languages proper (clear yellow) and other Macro-Jê languages (dark yellow) in modern times. Shadowed area represent approximately extension in the past. |
The Jê languages (also spelled Gê, Jean, Ye, Gean), or Jê–Kaingang languages, are spoken by the Jê, a group of indigenous peoples in Brazil.
Genetic relations
[edit]The Jê family forms the core of the Macro-Jê family. Kaufman (1990) finds the proposal convincing.
Family division
[edit]According to Ethnologue (which omits Jeikó), the language family is as follows:
- Jeikó (†)
- Northern Jê
- Central Jê
- Southern Jê
- Xokleng (760 speakers)
- Kaingáng
- Kaingáng (18,000 speakers)
- São Paulo Kaingáng (†)
- Ingain (†)
- Guayana (†)
Ramirez (2015)
[edit]Internal classification of the Jê languages according to Ramirez, et al. (2015):[1]
- Jê
- Southern Jê (dialect continuum)
- Northern Jê
Ramirez excludes Jaikó as a possibly spurious language.
Nikulin (2020)
[edit]According to Nikulin (2020), the internal branching of the Jê language family is as follows:[2][3]
- Jê
- Paraná
- Cerrado
- Akuwẽ
- Goyaz Jê
- Southern Kayapó
- Mossâmedes dialect
- Triângulo dialect
- Northern Jê
- Timbíra
- Trans-Tocantins
- Apinajé
- Trans-Araguaia
- Mẽbêngôkre (dialects: Xikrín, Kayapó)
- Tapajós
- Southern Kayapó
Some sound changes and lexical innovations that define various Jê subgroups:[4]
- Proto-Southern Jê *a < *Proto-Jê *ô
- Proto-Cerrado *wa < Proto-Jê *ô
- Proto-Goyaz Jê: *am, *um, *ɨm > *ãm, *ũm, *ɨ̃m
- Proto-Northern Jê: replacement of *kakũm ‘dry season’ (as in Panará akũŋ and Proto-Central Jê transl. mis – transl. '*wahum) with *aŋgrə
- Proto-Timbíra: *c > *h
- Proto-Trans-Tocantins: replacement of *a-mbə ‘eat (intransitive)’ with *ap-ku
Varieties
[edit]Below is a full list of Jê language varieties listed by Loukotka (1968), including names of unattested varieties.[5]
Jê language varieties listed by Loukotka (1968)
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Vocabulary
[edit]Loukotka (1968) lists the following basic vocabulary items.[5]
Language | Branch | head | eye | tongue | hand | one | two | three |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mehín | Timbirá I | i-xreː | ntó | i-yotó | i-nuxrá | püti | ibiaklüte | inklüt |
Tajé | Timbirá I | pá-krẽ | ntó | pá-yõtó | pá-ushrá | |||
Krenjé | Timbirá I | í-xu | ntó | pá-yõtó | pá-ükra | mbuchíd | ibyashüd | nkri |
Remkoka-Mekran | Timbirá I | pa-krãn | pa-ntó | pa-ñató | pa-nukra | puchite | hibiakruke | inkri |
Aponegikran | Timbirá I | i-kra | i-nthó | i-ñoto | i-ninkráy | hapuchiti | ipiakautu | inkré |
Krenkatajé | Timbirá I | hõ-ató | hõ-krá | buchití | daikrut | donkré | ||
Sakamekran | Timbirá II | i-krã | i-tó | yontou | u-krá | |||
Purekamekran | Timbirá II | i-klan | i-notho | |||||
Makamekran | Timbirá II | i-kran | ñóto | i-nontó | ñukrá | püchit | äklúte | glé |
Apinagé | Timbirá II | is-kran | i-nto | ñoto | ñukra | pushi | adkrúte | adrun-ati |
Karaho | Timbirá II | i-kran | i-nto | yoto | ñukra | ita | ökrüd | inkrä |
Menren | Timbirá II | pa-kran | i-tó | i-yukrá | pitit | emkröt | enkrí | |
Kayapó | Kayapó I | i-kran | i-ntó | i-ñoto | i-nikra | pudi | amaikrut | |
Iraamráire | Kayapó I | krã | no | i-ñoto | nikra | púdi | amaikrut | |
Gorotiré | Kayapó II | krã | nó | ñótó | nikra | püdyi | amaigru | |
Duludi | Kayapó II | hueh-noh | hue-nohdoh | hue-nigrah | ||||
Metotíre | Kayapó II | i-kran | i-nó | i-ñotó | i-nikra | |||
Gradaú | Kayapó II | i-kran | i-naká | i-ñoto | i-nikra | podzyi | ameikrut | |
Xikrí | Kayapó II | krãn | nó | ontó | nikrá | pudí | amaikrut | amaikrutkieket |
Usikrin | Kayapó II | no | ||||||
Southern Kayapó | Kayapó II | i-ikran | i-ntó | tsuto | shikria | |||
Kapiekran | Krao | ñukrá | ||||||
Krahó | Krao | krãn | hitó | hioptó | nikrá | puchite | hibiakruke | nkri |
Piokobjé | Krao | nkrãn | ntó | to | nkrá | pechäte | hibiakrót | nkri |
Krikati | Krao | i-krã | i-tó | i-yukrá | itá pochet | netá ipekrot | itá ikri | |
Suyá | Eastern | wa-kurá | woa-ndó | wã-notó | wa-ñikó | |||
Xavante | Eastern | da-kän | da-to | da-nonto | dé-iperé | simisi | maipoänä | skudaton |
Xerente | Eastern | da-krãn | da-tó | da-noitó | da-nipikra | shimishi | poñkámen | mepráne |
Xakriabá | Eastern | da-kran | da-toman | da-shipigrá | hemerotong | prané | eskumantong | |
Akroá | Eastern | ai-krán | aí-nthó | aso-inthó | as-subkrá | |||
Jeicó | Jeicó | grang-blá | a-lepú | ä-netá | ä-nänong |
Language | Branch | water | fire | sun | jaguar | tapir | bow |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mehín | Timbirá I | kú | kühü | pud | erb | kuxrüd | xúhi |
Tajé | Timbirá I | kú | kúhü | püt | oróp | kuxüd | kúhi |
Krenjé | Timbirá I | kú | kúxü | püd | orób | kukrüdn | kúhi |
Remkoka-Mekran | Timbirá I | kó | kuxú | pud | oróbo | kukrúte | kuːhí |
Aponegikran | Timbirá I | kó | koxʔhó | pútu | orópa | ||
Krenkatajé | Timbirá I | goxé | put | oropi | kuhé | ||
Sakamekran | Timbirá II | ko | put | kuhẽ | |||
Purekamekran | Timbirá II | gó | kuhü | put | rop | guklüthe | |
Makamekran | Timbirá II | gó | köyhé | büt | róp | kokreyuti | kuché |
Apinagé | Timbirá II | inkó | kukuvu | buré | robo | koklüte | gutye |
Karaho | Timbirá II | kó | kukuvu | put | robo | kokräti | kuhä |
Menren | Timbirá II | ko | koró | putiri | orótuk | kokrét | kuhẽ |
Kayapó | Kayapó I | ngo | kuwú | mut | róp | kukrot | dzyuzyé |
Iraamráire | Kayapó I | no | kuö | mút | rob | kukrüt | dzyudzye |
Gorotiré | Kayapó II | ngó | kuwü | mud | rob | kukrüd | dyúdye |
Duludi | Kayapó II | ||||||
Metotíre | Kayapó II | ingo | kua | mut | rokronre | kukrut | dudzye |
Gradaú | Kayapó II | ngo | kui | mut | rab | kukrit | dzyudzyä |
Xikrí | Kayapó II | ngou | kuã | maːt | róp | diudieː | |
Usikrin | Kayapó II | ngo | kóã | mud | rokrari | kokrít | derätukä |
Southern Kayapó | Kayapó II | piñkó | ichiú | itputi | napiá | idzhúta | ishé |
Kapiekran | Krao | ku | kusshi | amikru | |||
Krahó | Krao | kó | kuvrú | amkró | rob | kutkrút | |
Piokobjé | Krao | kó | kahó | amkró | ropkro | kokrät | kohé |
Krikati | Krao | ko | kuhẽ | ankró | |||
Suyá | Eastern | ngo | kustó | múrru | rauití | kukrit | tuté |
Xavante | Eastern | kö | kushe | budu | hú | kuhodu | kumikã |
Xerente | Eastern | kö | kuzé | bedö | rhúkú | kudu | komikan |
Xakriabá | Eastern | kü | kuché | stakró | ukú | kutó | komekané |
Akroá | Eastern | kuchio | put | hukutu | kuäté | ||
Jeicó | Jeicó | ping | xügkrá | kolunong | xkünoniang |
Proto-language
[edit]Proto-Jê | |
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Reconstruction of | Jê languages |
Reconstructed ancestor |
Nikulin (2020)
[edit]Proto-Jê reconstructions by Nikulin (2020):[2]
gloss Proto-Jê ‘foot’ *par ‘arm, branch’ *pañ ‘tree, wood, firewood’ *pĩm ‘to rub, to clean’ *põ ‘to leave.PL’ *pôc ‘to fart’ *pê/*pê-k ‘hungry, to want’ *prə̃m’ ‘coal, ember’ *prʏ ‘road’ *pry (~ *pryn) ‘wife’ *prũ ‘to hear, to understand’ *mba ‘liver’ *mba ‘to be afraid’ *-mbaŋ’ ‘DAT’ *mə̃ ‘to grab, to carry’ *mbə̂ ‘tail’ *mbyn ‘celestial body’ *mbyt ‘good’ *mbec ‘PL; with’ *mẽ ‘liquid’ *mbên ‘husband’ *mbɪn’ ‘to go.PL’ *mũ ‘ashes’ *mbrə ‘ant’ *mbrʊm’ ‘relative by marriage’ (kinship term) *mbre ‘to walk’ *wa ‘to take, to carry’ *wy ‘to untie’ *wô ‘to fly.SG’ *tə ‘tongue’ *ñũctə ‘INSTR’ *tə̃ ‘strong, hard’ *tə̂t ‘to die’ *ty ‘capybara’ *k(r)Vmtym’ ‘black, dark’ *tyk ‘fat’ *tom’ ‘old’ *tʊm’ ‘to carry’ *tu ‘horsefly’ *potu ‘NEG’ *tũ ‘to go.SG’ *tẽ ‘to dream’ *peti ‘to send’ *jandə ‘eye’ *ndəm ‘mother’ *nə̃ ‘to lie.SG’ *nõ ‘bad or crooked’ *pondʊ (~ *pondʊn) ‘to hit’ *ra ‘wing; armpit’ *jara ‘celestial body’ *roñ ‘to transport liquid or to pour’ *ru ‘to leave, to abandon’ *re ‘to throw.PL’ *rẽ ‘root’ *jarê (~ *jarên) ‘to weed’ *-rê(C) ‘to look’ *rĩt ‘to weave’ *cy ‘seed’ *cym ‘to eat soft food, to suck’ *cô ‘leaf’ *côj ‘nest’ *jacê ~ *jVmcê ‘bandage, sling’ *-cĩ(C) ‘to chew’ *kapnĵa ‘bee, bumblebee’ *nĵy ‘to hang.SG’ *nĵô ‘to tickle’ *nĵê ‘to stand.SG’ *ja ‘to put vertically.SG’ *ja ‘nose’ *ñĩja ‘to eat.INTR, food’ *jañ ‘bitter’ *jə̂ ‘smoke’ *ñĩjə̂ ‘urine’ *jʏ ‘to sit.SG’ *ñỹ ‘tooth’ *jo ‘salt’ *kVjo ‘to tear, to rip’ *jô ‘pus’ *jʊ ‘postposition’ *jʊ ‘father’ *jʊm’ ‘to hide’ *peju ‘to heat, to dry’ *nĵu ‘to sleep’ *ũt/*ñũt ‘thread, knot, cloth’ *jê (~ *jên) ‘female breast’ *ñũmjê(C) ‘vein’ *kujêk ‘to lay.SG’ *ji ‘name’ *jiji ~ *ñĩji ‘meat’ *ñĩ ‘hand (in compounds)’ *ñĩ(m)- ‘basket’ *kaj’ ‘skin, bark’ *kyñ ‘lip’ *jar-kyñ ‘to dig’ *ko ‘mouth’ *jar-ko ‘sky’ *kVñko ‘fly, mosquito’ *kôp ‘tree, horn’ *kôm ‘horn’ *ñĩ-kôm ‘wind’ *kôk ~ *ka-kôk ‘to eat’ *kʊ ‘stone’ *kẽt ‘NEG’ *kêt ‘pit’ *kɪj ‘to split’ *kɪ ~ *kɪj ~ *kɪj’ ‘offspring’ *kra ‘macaw’ *krat ‘head’ *krỹñ ‘knee’ *jVkrỹñ ‘chin, beak’ *krot ‘hole’ *kre ‘to plant’ *kre ‘thigh’ *krɪñ ‘to push against, to grind’ *ŋə̃(C) ‘feather, hair’ *ŋgoñ’ ‘louse’ *ŋgô ‘to push against, to crumble’ *ŋũ ‘to enter.PL’ *ŋgɪ ‘toucan’ *ŋrũ (~ *ŋrũn) ‘egg’ *ŋgre ‘to dance’ *ŋgre ‘wrap’ *ŋrĩ(C)
For a more complete list of Proto-Jê reconstructions, as well as Proto-Southern Jê reconstructions, see the corresponding Portuguese article.
Ribeiro & van der Voort (2010)
[edit]Proto-Jê reconstructions by Ribeiro and van der Voort (2010):[6]
gloss Proto-Jê ‘relational prefix’ *j- ‘dative’ *mã ‘to open’ *kje ‘wing’ *j-ar ‘mouth’ *j-arkua ‘mouth’ *j-ar- ‘head’ *krã ‘feather’ *j-ar ‘path’ *prɨ ‘causativizer’ *-n ‘chief’ *paʔi ‘to suck’ *so ‘to catch’ *wɨ ‘to eat, to bite’ *ku ‘body’ *hǝ ‘to sing, to dance’ *ŋrɛ ‘to lay’ *j-i, *s-i ‘hard’ *tǝt ‘to stand’ *j-am ‘thorn’ *j-ĩ ‘to speak’ *wẽ ‘fart’ *pek ‘tree, wood, horn’ *ko ‘wood, firewood’ *pĩ ‘ashes, dust’ *mrɔ ‘to wash’ *pe ‘tongue’ *j-õtɔ ‘hand’ *j-ĩ- ‘hand’ *ɲ-ĩkra ‘to kill’ *wĩ ‘nest’ *j-ase ‘bone’ *si ‘to hear, to know’ *ma ‘egg’ *ŋrɛ ‘stone’ *kɛn ‘skin, bark’ *kɨ ‘to plant’ *krɛ ‘1st person’ *ĩj- ‘2nd person’ *a- ‘3rd person’ *ĩ- ‘3rd person’ *s- ‘pus’ *j-u, *j-ur ‘tail’ *mɨ ‘root’ *j-are ‘seed’ *sɨ ‘to sit’ *j-ã ‘hunger’ *prãm ‘earth’ *pɨka ‘to come’ *tẽm
References
[edit]![](http://178.128.105.246/cars-http-upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png)
- ^ Ramirez, Henri; Vegini, Valdir; França, Maria Cristina Victorino de (2015). "Koropó, puri, kamakã e outras línguas do Leste Brasileiro". LIAMES: Línguas Indígenas Americanas. 15 (2): 223–277. doi:10.20396/liames.v15i2.8642302.
- ^ a b Nikulin, Andrey (2020). "A reconstruction of Proto-Jê phonology and lexicon". Journal of Language Relationship. 17 (1–2): 93–127. doi:10.31826/jlr-2019-171-211.
- ^ Nikulin, Andrey. 2020. Proto-Macro-Jê: um estudo reconstrutivo. Doctoral dissertation, University of Brasília.
- ^ Nikulin, Andrey; De Carvalho, Fernando O. (2019). "Estudos diacrônicos de línguas indígenas brasileiras: Um panorama" (PDF). Macabéa – Revista Eletrônica do Netlli. 8 (2): 255–305. doi:10.47295/mren.v8i2.1910.
- ^ a b Loukotka, Čestmír (1968). Classification of South American Indian languages. Los Angeles: UCLA Latin American Center.
- ^ Ribeiro, Eduardo Rivail (2010). "Nimuendajú was right: The inclusion of the jabutí language family in the Macro-Jê stock". International Journal of American Linguistics. 76 (4): 517–570. doi:10.1086/658056. hdl:2066/86080.