Musical theatre: Difference between revisions
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==History== |
==History== |
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===Antecedents of musical theatre=== |
===Antecedents of musical theatre=== |
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⚫ | The antecedents of musical theatre in Europe can be traced back to the [[theatre of ancient Greece]], where music and dance were included in stage comedies and tragedies during the 5th century BCE.<ref name=guide>{{cite web| first = Shay| last = Thornton| title = A Wonderful Life| url = http://www.tuts.com/season07/wonderful_study.pdf| archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20071127051412/http://www.tuts.com/season07/wonderful_study.pdf| publisher = Theatre Under the Stars| location = Houston, TX| page = 2| format = PDF| year = 2007| archivedate = November 27, 2007| accessdate = May 26, 2009}}</ref> The music the ancient , , theatre.<ref name=>John Kenrick | http://www.musicals101.com/.htm 2003 , </ref> In the 12th and 13th centuries, religious dramas taught the [[liturgy]]. [[ wagon]]s (stages on wheels) to tell part of the story. forms sometimes with the prose dialogues and liturgical chants new melodies.<ref>Hoppin 1978, pp. 180–181</ref> |
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====Antiquity to Middle Ages==== |
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The European [[Renaissance]] saw older forms evolve into two antecedents of musical theatre: [[commedia dell'arte]], where raucous clowns improvised familiar stories, and later, [[opera buffa]]. In England, Elizabethan and Jacobean plays frequently included music,<ref>Lord 2003, p. 41</ref> and short musical plays began to be included in an evenings' dramatic entertainments.<ref>Lord 2003, p. 42</ref> Court [[masques]] developed during the Tudor period that involved music, dancing, singing and acting, often with expensive costumes and a complex [[stage design]].<ref>Buelow 2004, p. 26</ref><ref>Shakespeare 1998, p. 44</ref> These developed into sung plays that are recognizable as English operas, the first usually being thought of as ''[[The Siege of Rhodes]]'' (1656).<ref name="Buelow 2004, p. 328">Buelow 2004, p. 328</ref> In France, meanwhile, [[Molière]] turned several of his farcical comedies into musical entertainments with songs (music provided by [[Jean Baptiste Lully]]) and dance in the late 17th century. These influenced a brief period of [[Opera in English|English opera]]<ref name="Carter">Carter and Butt 2005, p. 280</ref> by composers such as [[John Blow]]<ref>Parker 2001, p. 42</ref> and [[Henry Purcell]].<ref name="Buelow 2004, p. 328"/> |
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⚫ | The antecedents of musical theatre in Europe can be traced back to the [[theatre of ancient Greece]], where music and dance were included in stage comedies and tragedies during the 5th century BCE.<ref name=guide>{{cite web| first = Shay| last = Thornton| title = A Wonderful Life| url = http://www.tuts.com/season07/wonderful_study.pdf| archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20071127051412/http://www.tuts.com/season07/wonderful_study.pdf| publisher = Theatre Under the Stars| location = Houston, TX| page = 2| format = PDF| year = 2007| archivedate = November 27, 2007| accessdate = May 26, 2009}}</ref> The |
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From the 18th century, the most popular forms of musical theatre in Britain were [[ballad operas]], like [[John Gay]]'s ''[[The Beggar's Opera]]'', that included lyrics written to the tunes of popular songs of the day (often spoofing opera), and later [[pantomime]], which developed from commedia dell'arte, and [[comic opera]] with mostly romantic plot lines, like [[Michael Balfe]]'s ''[[The Bohemian Girl]]'' (1845). Meanwhile, on the continent, [[singspiel]], [[comédie en vaudeville]], [[opéra comique]] and other forms of light musical entertainment were emerging. ''The Beggar's Opera'' was the first recorded long-running play of any kind, running for 62 successive performances in 1728. It would take almost a century afterwards before any play broke 100 performances, but the record soon reached 150 in the late 1820s.<ref name="dgillan.screaming.net">{{cite web| first = Don| last = Gillan| title = Longest Running Plays in London and New York| url = http://www.stagebeauty.net/th-frames.html?http&&&www.stagebeauty.net/th-longr.html| work = Stage Beauty| year = 2007| accessdate = May 26, 2009}}</ref> Other musical theatre forms developed in England by the 19th century, such as [[music hall]], [[melodrama]] and [[burletta]], which were popularized partly because most London theatres were licensed only as music halls and not allowed to present plays without music. |
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====Renaissance to the 1800s==== |
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The European [[Renaissance]] saw older forms evolve into [[commedia dell'arte]], an Italian tradition where raucous clowns improvised their way through familiar stories, and later, [[opera buffa]]. In England, Elizabethan and Jacobean plays frequently included music played on organs, lutes, viols and pipes before and during the performance.<ref>Lord 2003, p. 41</ref> Plays, particularly the heavier histories and tragedies, were frequently broken up with a short musical play, with music, jokes and dancing, or were followed by an [[afterpiece]] known as a jigg, often consisting of scandalous or libellous dialogue set to popular tunes.<ref>Lord 2003, p. 42</ref> Court [[masques]] during the Tudor period, with music, dancing, singing and acting, often with expensive costumes and a complex [[stage design]], sometimes by a renowned architect such as [[Inigo Jones]], presented a deferential allegory flattering to a noble or royal patron.<ref>Buelow 2004, p. 26</ref> [[Ben Jonson]] often collaborated on masques with Jones. [[William Shakespeare]] often included masque-like sections in his plays.<ref>Shakespeare 1998, p. 44</ref> The musical sections of masques developed into sung plays, recognizable as operas. An early example was [[William Davenant]]'s ''[[The Siege of Rhodes]]'' (1656), originally given privately.<ref name="Buelow 2004, p. 328">Buelow 2004, p. 328</ref> |
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Colonial America did not have a significant theatre presence until 1752, when London entrepreneur William Hallam sent a company of actors to the colonies managed by his brother [[Lewis Hallam|Lewis]].<ref name=Wilmethp.182>Wilmeth and Miller, p. 182</ref> In New York in the summer of 1753, they performed ballad-operas, such as ''The Beggar’s Opera'', and ballad-farces.<ref name=Wilmethp.182/> By the 1840s, [[P.T. Barnum]] was operating an entertainment complex in lower Manhattan.<ref>Wilmeth and Miller, p. 56</ref> Other early musical theatre in America consisted of British forms, such as burletta and pantomime,<ref name=KenrickShort/> but what a piece was called did not necessarily define what it was. The 1852 Broadway [[extravaganza]] ''The Magic Deer'' advertised itself as "A Serio Comico Tragico Operatical Historical Extravaganzical Burletical Tale of Enchantment."<ref name=Kenrick>Kenrick, John. [http://www.musicals101.com/erastage.htm "History of Stage Musicals"], Musicals101.com, 2003, accessed May 26, 2009</ref> Theatre in New York moved from downtown gradually to midtown from around 1850, and did not arrive in the Times Square area until the 1920s and 1930s. Broadway's ''The Elves'' (1857) broke the 50 performance barrier. New York runs continued to lag far behind those in London, but [[Laura Keene]]'s "musical burletta" ''Seven Sisters'' (1860) shattered previous New York records with a run of 253 performances.<ref>Allen 1991, p. 106</ref> |
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In France, meanwhile, [[Molière]] turned several of his farcical comedies into musical entertainments with songs (music provided by [[Jean Baptiste Lully]]) and dance in the late 17th century. His ''[[Psyché (play)|Psyche]]'' was the model for an English opera by [[Thomas Shadwell]], ''The Miser'' produced in 1672.<ref name="Carter">Carter and Butt 2005, p. 280</ref> Davenant produced ''[[The Tempest (Dryden)|The Tempest]]'' in 1667, which was the first Shakespeare plot set to music, and was then adapted by Shadwell into an opera in 1674 composed by [[Matthew Locke (composer)|Matthew Locke]] and others.<ref name="Carter"/> About 1683, [[John Blow]] composed ''[[Venus and Adonis (opera)|Venus and Adonis]]'', often considered the first true English-language opera.<ref>Parker 2001, p. 42.</ref> Blow was followed by [[Henry Purcell]] and a brief period of [[Opera in English|English opera]]. After the death of [[Charles II of England|Charles II]] in 1685, English opera began to fall out of fashion.<ref name="Buelow 2004, p. 328"/> |
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===1850s to 1880s=== |
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[[File:William Hogarth 016.jpg|thumb|A [[William Hogarth]] painting based on ''[[The Beggar's Opera]]'' (c. 1728)]] |
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[[File:Crookfinale.jpg|thumb|300px|''[[The Black Crook]]'' (1866), which some historians consider the first modern musical<ref name=Morley>Morley 1987, p. 15</ref>]] |
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By the 18th century, two forms of musical theatre were popular in Britain: [[ballad operas]], like [[John Gay]]'s ''[[The Beggar's Opera]]'' (1728), that included lyrics written to the tunes of popular songs of the day (often spoofing opera), and [[comic opera]]s, with original scores and mostly romantic plot lines, like [[Michael Balfe]]'s ''[[The Bohemian Girl]]'' (1845). Meanwhile, on the continent, [[singspiel]], [[comédie en vaudeville]], [[opéra comique]] and other forms of light musical entertainment were emerging. Other musical theatre forms developed by the 19th century, such as [[music hall]], [[melodrama]], [[Victorian burlesque|burlesque]]. Melodramas and burlettas, in particular, were popularized partly because most London theatres were licensed only as music halls and not allowed to present plays without music. Some unlicensed theaters avoided the legal restrictions by providing supposedly free musical shows while serving tea at wildly inflated prices. In 1820, a new ordinance restricted all unlicensed theater productions to no more than six songs, which had to be an organic part of the play rather than a break or digression.<ref>Cullen, Frank, Vaudeville Old & New: An Encyclopedia of Variety Performers in America, Vol. 2, 2007, Taylor & Francis Group Publishing, pg. 810</ref> What a piece was called did not necessarily define what it was: the Broadway [[extravaganza]] ''The Magic Deer'' (1852) advertised itself as "A Serio Comico Tragico Operatical Historical Extravaganzical Burletical Tale of Enchantment."<ref name=Kenrick/> |
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⚫ | Around 1850, the French composer [[Hervé (composer)|Hervé]] was experimenting with a form of comic musical theatre called [[opérette]].<ref>Lubbock, Mark. [http://www.jstor.org/stable/937354 "The Music of 'Musicals'"]. ''The Musical Times'', Vol. 98, No. 1375 (September, 1957), pp. 483–85, Musical Times Publications Ltd., accessed 17 August 2010</ref> The best known composers of [[operetta]] were [[Jacques Offenbach]] from the 1850s to the 1870s and [[Johann Strauss II]] in the 1870s and 1880s. Offenbach's fertile melodies, combined with his librettists' witty satire, formed a model for the musical theatre.<ref>Lubbock, Mark. [http://www.jstor.org/stable/937354 "The Music of 'Musicals'",] ''The Musical Times'', Vol. 98, No. 1375 (September 1957), pp. 483–485 {{subscription}}</ref> of the French operettas (in risqué translations) [[Victorian burlesque|musical burlesques]] the London the .<ref name=Bond>[[Jessie Bond|Bond, Jessie]]. [http://math.boisestate.edu/gas/books/bond/intro.html Introduction to ''The Life and Reminiscences of Jessie Bond''], reprinted at ''The Gilbert and Sullivan Archive'', accessed March 4, 2011</ref> |
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In America, mid-18th century musical theatre entertainments included crude [[variety show|variety revue]], which eventually developed into [[vaudeville]], [[minstrel shows]], which soon crossed the Atlantic to Britain, and Victorian burlesque, first popularized in the US by British troupes.<ref name=KenrickShort/> The first original theatre piece in English that conforms to many of the modern definitions of a musical, including dance and original music that helped to tell the story, is generally considered ''[[The Black Crook]]'', which premiered in New York on September 12, 1866. The production was a staggering five-and-a-half hours long, but despite its length, it ran for a record-breaking 474 performances. The same year, ''The Black Domino/Between You, Me and the Post'' was the first show to call itself a "musical comedy." Comedians [[Edward Harrigan]] and Tony Hart produced and starred in musicals on Broadway between 1878 (''The Mulligan Guard Picnic'') and 1885. These musical comedies featured characters and situations taken from the everyday life of New York's lower classes and represented a significant step forward towards a more [[Legitimate theater|legitimate]] theatrical form. They starred high quality singers ([[Lillian Russell]], [[Vivienne Segal]], and [[Fay Templeton]]) instead of the ladies of questionable repute who had starred in earlier musical forms. |
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The first recorded long-running play of any kind was ''The Beggar's Opera'', which ran for 62 successive performances in 1728. It would take almost a century before the first play broke 100 performances, with ''Tom and Jerry'', based on the book ''Life in London'' (1821), and the record soon reached 150 in the late 1820s.<ref name="dgillan.screaming.net">{{cite web| first = Don| last = Gillan| title = Longest Running Plays in London and New York| url = http://www.stagebeauty.net/th-frames.html?http&&&www.stagebeauty.net/th-longr.html| work = Stage Beauty| year = 2007| accessdate = May 26, 2009}}</ref> Colonial America did not have a significant theatre presence until 1752, when London entrepreneur William Hallam sent a company of twelve actors to the colonies. They performed plays, ballad-operas such as ''The Beggar’s Opera'', and ballad-farces like ''Damon and Phillida''.<ref>Wilmeth and Miller, p. 182</ref> By the 1840s, [[P.T. Barnum]] was operating an entertainment complex in lower Manhattan.<ref>Wilmeth and Miller, p. 56.</ref> Theatre in New York moved gradually from downtown to midtown, seeking less expensive real estate prices, and did not arrive in the Times Square area until the 1920s and 1930s. Broadway's first "long-run" musical was a 50 performance hit called ''The Elves'' in 1857. New York runs continued to lag far behind those in London, but Laura Keene's "musical burletta" ''Seven Sisters'' (1860) shattered previous New York records with a run of 253 performances.<ref>Allen 1991, p. 106.</ref> |
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As transportation improved, poverty in London and New York diminished, and street lighting made for safer travel at night, the number of patrons for the growing number of theatres increased enormously. Plays ran longer, leading to better profits and improved production values, and men began to bring their families to the theatre. The first musical theatre piece to exceed 500 consecutive performances was the French operetta ''[[The Chimes of Normandy]]'' in 1878.<ref name="dgillan.screaming.net"/> English [[comic opera]] adopted many of the successful ideas of European operetta, none more successfully than the series of more than a dozen long-running [[Gilbert and Sullivan]] comic operas, including ''[[H.M.S. Pinafore]]'' (1878) and ''[[The Mikado]]'' (1885).<ref name=Lubbock/> These were sensations on both sides of the Atlantic and in Australia and helped to raise the standard for what was considered a successful show.<ref name=WeAll>Kenrick, John. [http://www.musicals101.com/usafter.htm "G&S in the USA" at the musicals101 website] ''The Cyber Encyclopedia of Musical Theatre, TV and Film'' (2008). Retrieved on 4 May 2012.</ref> These shows were designed for family audiences, a marked contrast from the risqué burlesques, bawdy music hall shows and French operettas that sometimes drew a crowd seeking less wholesome entertainment.<ref name=Bond/> Only a few 19th-century musical pieces exceeded the run of ''The Mikado'', such as ''[[Dorothy (opera)|Dorothy]]'', which opened in 1886 and set a new record with a run of 931 performances. Gilbert and Sullivan's influence on later musical theatre was profound, creating examples of how to "integrate" musicals so that the lyrics and dialogue advanced a coherent story.<ref name=Jones10>Jones, 2003, [http://books.google.com/books?id=WqQH31qkYNoC&pg=PA9&lpg=PA9&dq=Bordman+pinafore&source=bl&ots=-4A-Dm231B&sig=UwT_XytKbxkRXtLo_OV7-_VTlps&hl=en&ei=RPzlSezEBpeUMcSs4I4J&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=7#PPA4,M1 pp. 10–11]</ref><ref>Bargainnier, Earl F. "W. S. Gilbert and American Musical Theatre", pp. 120–33, ''American Popular Music: Readings from the Popular Press'' by Timothy E. Scheurer, Popular Press, 1989 ISBN 0-87972-466-8</ref> Their works were [[Cultural Influence of Gilbert and Sullivan#Musical theatre and comedy|admired and copied]] by early authors and composers of musicals in Britain<ref>[http://books.guardian.co.uk/authors/author/0,,-248,00.html PG Wodehouse (1881–1975)], guardian.co.uk, Retrieved on 21 May 2007</ref><ref>{{cite web| url=http://home.lagrange.edu/arobinson/wodehousegilbert.htm |title=List of allusions to G&S in Wodehouse |publisher=Home.lagrange.edu |accessdate=27 May 2009}}</ref> and America.<ref name=WeAll/><ref>Meyerson, Harold and Ernest Harburg ''Who Put the Rainbow in the Wizard of Oz?: Yip Harburg, Lyricist'', pp 15-17 (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1993); and [[Ian Bradley|Bradley]] (2005), p. 9</ref> |
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⚫ | Around 1850, the French composer [[Hervé (composer)|Hervé]] was experimenting with a form of comic musical theatre |
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⚫ | ''[[A Trip to Chinatown]]'' (1891) was Broadway's long-run champion (until ''[[Irene (musical)|Irene]]'' in 1919), running for 657 performances. Gilbert and Sullivan were both pirated and imitated in New York by productions such as [[Reginald de Koven]]'s ''[[Robin Hood (comic opera)|Robin Hood]]'' (1891) and [[John Philip Sousa]]'s ''[[El Capitan (operetta)|El Capitan]]'' (1896). ''A Trip to Coontown'' (1898) was the first musical comedy entirely produced and performed by [[African American]]s Broadway (largely inspired by the routines of the [[minstrel show]]s), followed by [[ragtime]]-tinged . Hundreds of musical comedies were staged on Broadway in the 1890s and early 20th century composed of songs written in New York's [[Tin Pan Alley]], [[George M. Cohan]] were often .<ref>Mark Evan Swartz's ''[[Oz Before the Rainbow]]'' describes the enormous train trips required of the cast of the 1903 smash hit, ''[[The Wizard of Oz (1902 stage play)|The Wizard of Oz]]'', which tour ran for nine years, including on the road. [http://books.google.com/books?id=X_7VbOGM8iMC&printsec=frontcover&dq=%22Oz+before+the+rainbow%22&source=bl&ots=q_nhXLTqwK&sig=Bsrcqapb4szk6WPRC_xhUo7Fyg8&hl=en&ei=-ncuTbn2JIH58AaSwM2UCg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CC4Q6AEwAg#v=onepage&q&f=false "Oz Before the Rainbow: L. Frank Baum's 'The Wonderful Wizard of Oz' on Stage and Screen to 1939"]. The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2000 ISBN 0-8018-6477-1</ref> |
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⚫ | Meanwhile, took over the London stage in the [[Gay Nineties]], [[ ]] perceived that audiences wanted a new alternative to the [[Savoy opera|Savoy]]-style comic operas and their intellectual, political, absurdist satire. He experimented with a modern-dress, family-friendly musical theatre style, with breezy, popular songs, snappy, romantic banter, and stylish spectacle. These drew on the traditions of comic opera elements of burlesque and of the Harrigan and Hart pieces. He replaced the bawdy women of burlesque with his "respectable" corps of [[Gaiety Girls]]. The success of the first of these, ''[[In Town (musical)|In Town]]'' 1892 and ''[[A Gaiety Girl]]'' 1893 light, romantic "poor maiden loves aristocrat and wins him against all odds" shows, with [[ ]], [[ ]] and [[Lionel Monckton]]. These shows were immediately widely copied in America, . ''[[The Geisha]]'' (1896) , running for more than two years. |
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[[File:Circa-1879-DOyly-Carte-HMS-Pinafore-from-Library-of-Congress2.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Poster for an early production.]] |
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In America, the first original theatre piece in English that conforms to the modern conception of a musical, adding dance and original music that helped to tell the story, is generally considered ''[[The Black Crook]]'', which premiered in New York in 1866. The production was a staggering five-and-a-half hours long, but despite its length, it ran for a record-breaking 474 performances, in no small part because of its chorus of underdressed women, billed as "ballet dancers."<ref>Cullen, Frank, Vaudeville Old & New: An Encyclopedia of Variety Performers in America, Vol. 2, 2007, Taylor & Francis Group Publishing, pg. 811</ref> The same year, ''The Black Domino/Between You, Me and the Post'' was the first show to call itself a "musical comedy." In 1868, Lydia Thompson and Her British Blondes appeared in ''Ixion'' as ancient Greek goddesses in scanty outfits, further establishing a trend of "leg shows" as well as increased denunciation of the theater by moralists and critics. |
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⚫ | The British musical comedy ''[[Florodora]]'' (1899) was on both sides of the Atlantic, as was ''[[A Chinese Honeymoon]]'' (1901) ran for a record-setting 1,074 performances in London and 376 in New York. After the turn of the 20th century, [[Seymour Hicks]] joined forces with American producer [[Charles Frohman]] to of . Other Edwardian musical comedy hits included ''[[The Arcadians (musical)|The Arcadians]]'' (1909) and ''[[The Quaker Girl]]'' (1910).<ref>See Index to ''The Gaiety'', a British musical theatre publication about Victorian and Edwardian musical theatre.</ref> |
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Comedians [[Edward Harrigan]] and Tony Hart produced and starred in musicals on Broadway between 1878 (''The Mulligan Guard Picnic'') and 1885, with book and lyrics by Harrigan and music by his father-in-law David Braham. These musical comedies featured characters and situations taken from the everyday life of New York's lower classes and represented a significant step from [[burletta]], [[minstrel shows]], [[music hall]] and burlesque, towards a more [[Legitimate theater|legitimate]] theatrical form. They starred high quality singers ([[Lillian Russell]], [[Vivienne Segal]], and [[Fay Templeton]]) instead of the ladies of questionable repute who had starred in earlier musical forms.<ref name=Bond/> |
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The length of runs in the theatre changed rapidly around the same time that the modern musical emerged. As transportation improved, poverty in London and New York diminished, and street lighting made for safer travel at night, the number of potential patrons for the growing number of theatres increased enormously. Plays could run longer and still draw in the audiences, leading to better profits and improved production values. The first play to achieve 500 consecutive performances was the London (non-musical) comedy ''[[Our Boys]]'', opening in 1875, which set an astonishing new record of 1,362 performances.<ref name="dgillan.screaming.net"/> This run was not equaled on the musical stage until [[World War I]], but musical theatre soon broke the 500 performance mark in London, most notably by the series of more than a dozen long-running [[Gilbert and Sullivan]] family-friendly [[comic opera]] hits, including ''[[H.M.S. Pinafore]]'' in 1878 and ''[[The Mikado]]'' in 1885. These were sensations on both sides of the Atlantic and raised the standard for what was considered a successful run.<ref name=WeAll>Kenrick, John. [http://www.musicals101.com/usafter.htm "G&S in the USA" at the musicals101 website] ''The Cyber Encyclopedia of Musical Theatre, TV and Film'' (2008). Retrieved on 4 May 2012.</ref> |
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Gilbert and Sullivan's influence on later musical theatre was profound, demonstrating how to "integrate" musicals so that the lyrics and dialogue were designed to advance a coherent story.<ref name=Jones10>Jones, 2003, [http://books.google.com/books?id=WqQH31qkYNoC&pg=PA9&lpg=PA9&dq=Bordman+pinafore&source=bl&ots=-4A-Dm231B&sig=UwT_XytKbxkRXtLo_OV7-_VTlps&hl=en&ei=RPzlSezEBpeUMcSs4I4J&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=7#PPA4,M1 pp. 10–11]</ref><ref>Bargainnier, Earl F. "W. S. Gilbert and American Musical Theatre", pp. 120–33, ''American Popular Music: Readings from the Popular Press'' by Timothy E. Scheurer, Popular Press, 1989 ISBN 0-87972-466-8</ref> Their works were [[Cultural Influence of Gilbert and Sullivan#Musical theatre and comedy|admired and copied]] by early authors and composers of musicals such as [[Ivan Caryll]], [[Lionel Monckton]], [[P. G. Wodehouse]],<ref>[http://books.guardian.co.uk/authors/author/0,,-248,00.html PG Wodehouse (1881–1975)], guardian.co.uk, Retrieved on 21 May 2007</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://home.lagrange.edu/arobinson/wodehousegilbert.htm |title=List of allusions to G&S in Wodehouse |publisher=Home.lagrange.edu |accessdate=27 May 2009}}</ref> and [[Victor Herbert]], and later [[Jerome Kern]], [[Ira Gershwin]], [[Lorenz Hart]], [[Alan Jay Lerner]],<ref name=WeAll/> [[Yip Harburg]],<ref>Meyerson, Harold and Ernest Harburg ''Who Put the Rainbow in the Wizard of Oz?: Yip Harburg, Lyricist'', pp 15-17 (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1993, 1st paperback edition 1995)</ref> [[Irving Berlin]], [[Ivor Novello]], [[Oscar Hammerstein II]] and [[Andrew Lloyd Webber]].<ref>[[Ian Bradley|Bradley]] (2005), p. 9</ref> Other British composers of the 1870s and 1880s included [[Edward Solomon]], [[Alfred Cellier]] and [[F. Osmond Carr]]. The most popular British shows, beginning with the [[Savoy operas]], also enjoyed profitable New York productions and tours of Britain, America, Europe, Australasia and South Africa. These shows were fare for "respectable" audiences, a marked contrast from the bawdy burlesques, melodramas, minstrel shows, music hall and French operettas that had previously dominated the stage.<ref name=Bond/> |
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[[File:GeorgeEdwardes.jpg|thumb|upright|[[George Edwardes]]]] |
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⚫ | Meanwhile, |
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⚫ | The British musical comedy ''[[Florodora]]'' (1899) was |
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===Operetta and World War I=== |
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[[File:Victor herbert.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Victor Herbert]]]] |
[[File:Victor herbert.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Victor Herbert]]]] |
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Virtually eliminated from the English-speaking stage by competition from the ubiquitous Edwardian musical comedies |
Virtually eliminated from the English-speaking stage by competition from the ubiquitous Edwardian musical comedies, operettas returned to London and Broadway in 1907 with ''[[The Merry Widow]]'', and became direct competitors . , , , In America, [[Victor Herbert]] produced a string of operettas ''[[The Fortune Teller (operetta)|The Fortune Teller]]'' (1898), ''[[Babes in Toyland (operetta)|Babes in Toyland]]'' (1903), ''[[Mlle. Modiste]]'' (1905), ''[[The Red Mill]]'' (1906) and ''[[Naughty Marietta (operetta)|Naughty Marietta]]'' (1910). |
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the 1910s, the team of [[P. G. Wodehouse]], [[Guy Bolton]] and [[Jerome Kern]] in the footsteps of [[Gilbert and Sullivan]], "[[Princess Theatre, New York City|Princess Theatre]] shows" paved the way for Kern's later work by showing that a musical could combine light, popular entertainment with continuity between its story and songs<ref name=Jones10/> |
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{{quote|"These shows built and polished the mold from which almost all later major musical comedies evolved. ... The characters and situations were, within the limitations of musical comedy license, believable and the humor came from the situations or the nature of the characters. Kern's exquisitely flowing melodies were employed to further the action or develop characterization. |
{{quote|"These shows built and polished the mold from which almost all later major musical comedies evolved. ... The characters and situations were, within the limitations of musical comedy license, believable and the humor came from the situations or the nature of the characters. Kern's exquisitely flowing melodies were employed to further the action or develop characterization. ... [] musical comedy was often guilty of inserting songs in a hit-or-miss fashion. The Princess Theatre musicals brought about a change in approach. P. G. Wodehouse, the most observant, literate, and witty lyricist of his day, and the team of Bolton, Wodehouse, and Kern had an influence felt to this day.<ref name=Quarterly/>}} |
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⚫ | The theatre-going public needed escapist entertainment during the dark times of [[World War I]], and they flocked to the theatre. 1919 hit musical ''[[Irene (musical)|Irene]]'' ran for 670 performances, a Broadway record that held until 1938 [Hellzapoppin ]. The British public supported far longer runs like that of ''[[Maid of the Mountains]]'' (1,352 performances) and especially ''[[Chu Chin Chow]]''. Its run of 2,238 performances was more than twice as as any previous musical, setting a record that stood for nearly forty years [Salad Days ]. like ''[[The Bing Boys Are Here]]'' in Britain, and those of [[Florenz Ziegfeld]] and his imitators in America, were also extraordinarily popular.<ref name=Kenrick/> |
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[[File:Asche in Chu Chin Chow.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Oscar Asche]] in ''[[Chu Chin Chow]]'']] |
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⚫ | The theatre-going public needed escapist entertainment during the dark times of [[World War I]], and they flocked to the theatre. |
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⚫ | Many shows were [[revue]]s, series of sketches and songs with little or no connection between them. The best-known of these were the annual ''[[Ziegfeld Follies]]'', spectacular song-and-dance revues on Broadway featuring extravagant sets, elaborate costumes, and beautiful chorus girls. These spectacles also raised production values, and mounting a musical generally became more expensive. ''[[Shuffle Along]]'', an all-[[African American]] show was a hit on Broadway.<ref>Krasner, David. ''A Beautiful Pageant: African American Theatre, Drama and Performance in the Harlem Renaissance, 1910–1927'', Palgrave MacMillan, 2002, pp. 263–67</ref> operettas the , as [[Rudolf Friml]] and [[ ]] of Broadway .<ref>Midgette, Anne. [http://www.nytimes.com/2003/03/29/theater/operetta-review-much-silliness-in-a-gilt-frame.html "Operetta Review: Much Silliness In a Gilt Frame"], ''The New York Times'', March 29, 2003, accessed December 1, 2012</ref> |
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⚫ | [[ ]] and [[ ]] musical the century as Kern and other [[Tin Pan Alley]] composers began to bring new musical styles such as [[ragtime]] and [[jazz]] to the theatres [[Shubert Brothers]] took control of the Broadway theatres. Musical theatre writer [[Andrew Lamb (writer)|Andrew Lamb]] notes, "The operatic and theatrical styles of nineteenth-century social structures were replaced by a musical style more aptly suited to twentieth-century society and its vernacular idiom. It was from America that the more direct style emerged, and in America that it was able to flourish in a developing society less hidebound by nineteenth-century tradition."<ref>{{cite journal| last = Lamb| first = Andrew| date = Spring 1986| title = From Pinafore to Porter: United States-United Kingdom Interactions in Musical Theater, 1879–1929| journal = American Music| volume = 4| issue = British-American Musical Interactions | page = 47| publisher = University of Illinois Press| location = Chicago| issn = 07344392| accessdate = May 26, 2009| jstor = 3052183}}</ref> |
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The musicals of the [[Roaring Twenties]], borrowing from vaudeville, [[music hall]] and other light entertainments, tended to emphasize star actors and actresses, big dance routines, and popular songs, at the expense of plot. Typical of the decade were lighthearted productions like ''[[Sally (musical)|Sally]]''; ''[[Lady Be Good (musical)|Lady Be Good]]''; ''[[Sunny (musical)|Sunny]]''; ''[[No, No, Nanette]]''; ''[[Oh, Kay!]]'' and ''[[Funny Face (musical)|Funny Face]]''. While the books of these shows may have been forgettable, they featured stars such as [[Marilyn Miller]] and [[Fred Astaire]] and produced dozens of enduring popular songs ("[[Traditional pop music|standards]]") by, most notably, Jerome Kern, the Gershwin brothers, Irving Berlin, [[Cole Porter]], [[Vincent Youmans]], and the team of [[Richard Rodgers]] and [[Lorenz Hart]]. Throughout the first half of the 20th century, popular music was dominated by musical theatre composers and lyricists. These musicals and the standards they produced, including "[[Fascinating Rhythm]]", "[[Tea for Two (song)|Tea for Two]]" and "[[Someone to Watch Over Me (song)|Someone to Watch Over Me]]", became popular on both sides of the Atlantic ocean. |
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⚫ | Many shows were [[revue]]s, series of sketches and songs with little or no connection between them. The best-known of these were the annual ''[[Ziegfeld Follies]]'', spectacular song-and-dance revues on Broadway featuring extravagant sets, elaborate costumes, and beautiful chorus girls. These spectacles also raised production values, and mounting a musical generally became more expensive. ''[[Shuffle Along]]'', an all-[[African American]] show was a hit on Broadway.<ref>Krasner, David. ''A Beautiful Pageant: African American Theatre, Drama and Performance in the Harlem Renaissance, 1910–1927'', Palgrave MacMillan, 2002, pp. 263–67</ref> |
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⚫ | Progressing far beyond the comparatively frivolous musicals and sentimental operettas of the decade, ''[[Show Boat]]'' (1927), represented an even more complete integration of book and score than the Princess Theatre musicals, with dramatic themes told through the music, dialogue, setting and movement. This was accomplished by combining the lyricism of Kern's music with the skillful of [[Oscar Hammerstein II]]. One historian wrote, "Here we come to a completely new genre – the musical play as distinguished from musical comedy. Now ... everything else was subservient to that play. Now ... came complete integration of song, humor and production numbers into a single and inextricable artistic entity."<ref name=history>Lubbock 2002</ref> |
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⚫ | Progressing far beyond the comparatively frivolous musicals and sentimental operettas of the decade, ''[[Show Boat]]'' |
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⚫ | the song-and-dance of . The revue ''[[The Band Wagon (musical)|The Band Wagon]]'' (1931) starred dancing partners Fred Astaire and his sister [[Adele Astaire|Adele]], while Porter's ''[[Anything Goes]]'' (1934) confirmed [[Ethel Merman]]'s position as the First Lady of musical theatre, a title she maintained for many years. Coward and Novello continued to deliver old fashioned, sentimental musicals, such as ''[[The Dancing Years]]'', Rodgers Hart returned from Hollywood to a series of Broadway , including ''[[On Your Toes]]'' (1936, with [[Ray Bolger]], the first Broadway musical to make dramatic use of classical dance), ''[[Babes In Arms]]'' (1937) and ''[[The Boys From Syracuse]]'' (1938) Porter ''[[DuBarry Was a Lady]]'' (1939). The longest-running piece of musical theatre of the 1930s was ''[[Hellzapoppin' (musical)|Hellzapoppin]]'' (1938), a revue with audience participation, which played for 1,404 performances, setting a new Broadway record.<ref / |
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⚫ | , a few creative teams began to build on ''Show Boat'''s innovations. ''[[Of Thee I Sing]]'' (1931), a political satire by , was the first musical awarded the [[Pulitzer Prize]].<ref>[http://www.pulitzer.org/awards/1944 1944 awards], Pulitzer.org, accessed July 7, 2012</ref> ''[[As Thousands Cheer]]'' (1933), a revue by [[Irving Berlin]] and [[Moss Hart]] in which each song or sketch was based on a newspaper headline, marked the first Broadway show in which an African-American, [[Ethel Waters]], starred alongside white actors. Waters' numbers included "[[Supper Time]]", a woman's lament for her husband who has been lynched.<ref>{{cite web| first = Richard | last = Connema| title = San Francisco: ''As Thousands Cheer'' and ''Dear World''| url = http://www.talkinbroadway.com/regional/sanfran/s75.html| publisher = TalkinBroadway.Org, Inc.| year = 2000| accessdate = May 26, 2009}}</ref> ''[[Porgy and Bess]]'' (1935) featured an all African-American cast and blended operatic, folk, and jazz idioms. ''[[The Cradle Will Rock]]'' (1937), by [[Orson Welles]], was a highly political pro-[[trade union|union]] piece that, despite the controversy surrounding it, for 108 performances. Rodgers and Hart's ''[[I'd Rather Be Right]]'' (1937) was a political satire with [[George M. Cohan]] as President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]], and [[Kurt Weill]]'s ''[[Knickerbocker Holiday]]'' depicted New York City's early history while good-naturedly satirizing good intentions. |
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The motion picture mounted a challenge to the stage. At first, films were silent and presented only limited competition to theatre. But by the end of the 1920s, films like ''[[The Jazz Singer]]'' could be presented with synchronized sound. [[Sound film|"Talkie"]] films at low prices effectively killed off [[vaudeville]] by the early 1930s. Historian [[John Kenrick (theatre writer)|John Kenrick]] commented: "Top vaudeville stars filmed their acts for one-time pay-offs, inadvertently helping to speed the death of vaudeville. After all, when 'small time' theatres could offer 'big time' performers on screen at a nickel a seat, who could ask audiences to pay higher amounts for less impressive live talent?"<ref>Kenrick, John. [http://www.musicals101.com/1927-30film2.htm "History of Musical Film, 1927–30: Part II"]. Musicals101.com, 2004, accessed May 17, 2010</ref> |
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====1930s==== |
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[[File:EthelMermanStageDoorCanteen.jpg|right|thumb|upright|[[Ethel Merman]]]] |
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The [[Great Depression]] affected theatre audiences on both sides of the Atlantic, as people had little money to spend on entertainment. Only a few stage shows exceeded a run on Broadway or in London of 500 performances during the decade. |
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the , '' '' the of , , , musical to beyond the gags and showgirls musicals of the ''Gay Nineties'' and ''Roaring Twenties'' and the sentimental romance of operetta. |
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===''The Golden Age'' (1940s to 1960s)=== |
===''The Golden Age'' (1940s to 1960s)=== |
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====1950s==== |
====1950s==== |
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[[File:JulieAndrews face.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Julie Andrews]]]] |
[[File:JulieAndrews face.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Julie Andrews]]]] |
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[[Damon Runyon]]'s eclectic characters were at the core of [[Frank Loesser]]'s and [[Abe Burrows]]' ''[[Guys and Dolls (musical)|Guys and Dolls]]'', (1950, 1,200 performances); and the [[California Gold Rush|Gold Rush]] was the setting for [[Alan Jay Lerner]] and [[Frederick Loewe]]'s ''[[Paint Your Wagon (musical)|Paint Your Wagon]]'' (1951). The relatively brief seven-month run of that show didn't discourage [[Lerner and Loewe]] from collaborating again, this time on ''[[My Fair Lady]]'' (1956), an adaptation of [[George Bernard Shaw]]'s ''[[Pygmalion (play)|Pygmalion]]'' starring [[Rex Harrison]] and [[Julie Andrews]], which at 2,717 performances held the long-run record for many years. Popular Hollywood films were made of all of these musicals. ''[[The Boy Friend (musical)|The Boy Friend]]'' (1954) ran for 2,078 performances in London, briefly becoming the third longest-running musical in West End or Broadway history (after ''Chu Chin Chow'' and ''Oklahoma!''), until it was demoted by ''Salad Days'' |
[[Damon Runyon]]'s eclectic characters were at the core of [[Frank Loesser]]'s and [[Abe Burrows]]' ''[[Guys and Dolls (musical)|Guys and Dolls]]'', (1950, 1,200 performances); and the [[California Gold Rush|Gold Rush]] was the setting for [[Alan Jay Lerner]] and [[Frederick Loewe]]'s ''[[Paint Your Wagon (musical)|Paint Your Wagon]]'' (1951). The relatively brief seven-month run of that show didn't discourage [[Lerner and Loewe]] from collaborating again, this time on ''[[My Fair Lady]]'' (1956), an adaptation of [[George Bernard Shaw]]'s ''[[Pygmalion (play)|Pygmalion]]'' starring [[Rex Harrison]] and [[Julie Andrews]], which at 2,717 performances held the long-run record for many years. Popular Hollywood films were made of all of these musicals. ''[[The Boy Friend (musical)|The Boy Friend]]'' (1954) ran for 2,078 performances in London, briefly becoming the third longest-running musical in West End or Broadway history (after ''Chu Chin Chow'' and ''Oklahoma!''), until it was demoted by ''Salad Days'' marked [[Julie Andrews]]' American debut. |
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Another record was set by ''[[The Threepenny Opera]]'', which ran for 2,707 performances, becoming the longest-running off-Broadway musical until ''[[The Fantasticks]]''. The production also broke ground by showing that musicals could be profitable off-Broadway in a small-scale, small orchestra format. This was confirmed in 1959 when a revival of [[Jerome Kern]] and [[P. G. Wodehouse]]'s ''[[Leave It to Jane]]'' ran for more than two years. The 1959–1960 [[Off-Broadway]] season included a dozen musicals and revues including ''[[Little Mary Sunshine]]'', ''The Fantasticks'' and ''[[Ernest in Love]]'', a musical adaptation of [[Oscar Wilde]]'s 1895 hit ''[[The Importance of Being Earnest]]''.<ref>{{cite news | title = On the Record: ''Ernest In Love'', ''Marco Polo'', Puppets and Maury Yeston | first = Steven | last = Suskin | url = http://web.playbill.com/news/article/81129-ON_THE_RECORD_Ernest_In_Love_Marco_Polo_Puppets_and_Maury_Yeston | publisher = [[Playbill|Playbill, Inc]]. | date = August 10, 2003 | accessdate = May 26, 2009 }}</ref> |
Another record was set by ''[[The Threepenny Opera]]'', which ran for 2,707 performances, becoming the longest-running off-Broadway musical until ''[[The Fantasticks]]''. The production also broke ground by showing that musicals could be profitable off-Broadway in a small-scale, small orchestra format. This was confirmed in 1959 when a revival of [[Jerome Kern]] and [[P. G. Wodehouse]]'s ''[[Leave It to Jane]]'' ran for more than two years. The 1959–1960 [[Off-Broadway]] season included a dozen musicals and revues including ''[[Little Mary Sunshine]]'', ''The Fantasticks'' and ''[[Ernest in Love]]'', a musical adaptation of [[Oscar Wilde]]'s 1895 hit ''[[The Importance of Being Earnest]]''.<ref>{{cite news | title = On the Record: ''Ernest In Love'', ''Marco Polo'', Puppets and Maury Yeston | first = Steven | last = Suskin | url = http://web.playbill.com/news/article/81129-ON_THE_RECORD_Ernest_In_Love_Marco_Polo_Puppets_and_Maury_Yeston | publisher = [[Playbill|Playbill, Inc]]. | date = August 10, 2003 | accessdate = May 26, 2009 }}</ref> |
Revision as of 09:09, 13 October 2015
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Musical theatre is a form of theatrical performance that combines songs, spoken dialogue, acting, and dance. The story and emotional content of a musical – humor, pathos, love, anger – are communicated through the words, music, movement and technical aspects of the entertainment as an integrated whole. Although musical theatre overlaps with other theatrical forms like opera and dance, it may be distinguished by the equal importance given to the music as compared with the dialogue, movement and other elements. Since the early 20th century, musical theatre stage works have generally been called, simply, musicals.
Although music has been a part of dramatic presentations since ancient times, modern Western musical theatre emerged during the 19th century, with many structural elements established by the works of Gilbert and Sullivan in Britain and those of Harrigan and Hart in America. These were followed by the numerous Edwardian musical comedies and the musical theatre works of American creators like George M. Cohan. The Princess Theatre musicals and other smart shows like Of Thee I Sing (1931) were artistic steps forward beyond revues and other frothy entertainments of the early 20th century and led to such groundbreaking works as Show Boat (1927) and Oklahoma! (1943). Some of the most famous and iconic musicals through the decades that followed include West Side Story (1957), The Fantasticks (1960), Hair (1967), A Chorus Line (1975), Les Misérables (1985), The Phantom of the Opera (1986), Rent (1996), The Producers (2001) and Wicked (2003).
Musicals are performed around the world. They may be presented in large venues, such as big-budget Broadway or West End productions in New York City or London. Alternatively, musicals may be staged in smaller fringe theatre, Off-Broadway or regional theatre productions, or on tour. Musicals are often presented by amateur and school groups in churches, schools and other performance spaces. In addition to the United States and Britain, there are vibrant musical theatre scenes in continental Europe, Asia, Australasia, Canada and Latin America.
Definitions and scope
Book musicals
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Since the 20th century, the "book musical" has been defined as a musical play where songs and dances are fully integrated into a well-made story with serious dramatic goals that is able to evoke genuine emotions other than laughter.[2][3] The three main components of a book musical are its music, lyrics and book. The book or script of a musical refers to the story, character development, and dramatic structure, including the spoken dialogue and stage directions, but it can also refer to the dialogue and lyrics together, which are sometimes referred to as the libretto (Italian for “little book”). The music and lyrics together form the score of a musical but the interpretation of a musical by its creative team heavily influences the way in which a musical is presented. That team includes a director, a musical director, usually a choreographer and sometimes an orchestrator. A musical's production is also creatively characterized by technical aspects, such as set design, costumes, stage properties (props), lighting and sound, which generally change from the original production to succeeding productions. Some famous production elements, however, may be retained from the original production; for example, Bob Fosse's choreography in Chicago.
There is no fixed length for a musical. While it can range from a short one-act entertainment to several acts and several hours in length (or even a multi-evening presentation), most musicals range from one and a half to three hours. Musicals are usually presented in two acts, with one short intermission and the first act frequently longer than the second. The first act generally introduces nearly all of the characters and most of the music, and often ends with the introduction of a dramatic conflict or plot complication while the second act may introduce a few new songs but usually contains reprises of important musical themes and resolves the conflict or complication. A book musical is usually built around four to six main theme tunes that are reprised later in the show, although it sometimes consists of a series of songs not directly musically related. Spoken dialogue is generally interspersed between musical numbers, although "sung dialogue" or recitative may be used, especially in so-called "sung-through" musicals such as Jesus Christ Superstar, Les Misérables, and Evita. Several shorter musicals on Broadway and in the West End have been presented in one act in recent decades.
Moments of greatest dramatic intensity in a book musical are often performed in song. Proverbially, "when the emotion becomes too strong for speech you sing; when it becomes too strong for song, you dance." In a book musical, a song is ideally crafted to suit the character (or characters) and their situation within the story; although there have been times in the history of the musical (e.g. from the 1890s to the 1920s) when this integration between music and story has been tenuous. As New York Times critic Ben Brantley described the ideal of song in theatre when reviewing the 2008 revival of Gypsy: "There is no separation at all between song and character, which is what happens in those uncommon moments when musicals reach upward to achieve their ideal reasons to be."[4] Typically, many fewer words are sung in a five-minute song than are spoken in a five-minute block of dialogue. Therefore, there is less time to develop drama in a musical than in a straight play of equivalent length, since a musical usually devotes more time to music than to dialogue. Within the compressed nature of a musical, the writers must develop the characters and the plot.
The material presented in a musical may be original, or it may be adopted or born from novels (Wicked and Man of La Mancha), plays (Hello, Dolly!), classic legends (Camelot), historical events (Evita) or films (The Producers and Billy Elliot). On the other hand, many successful musical theatre works have been adapted for musical films, such as West Side Story, My Fair Lady, The Sound of Music, Oliver! and Chicago.
Comparisons with opera
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Musical theatre is closely related to the theatrical form of opera, but the two are usually distinguished by weighing a number of factors. Musicals generally have a greater focus on spoken dialogue (though some musicals are entirely accompanied and sung through; and on the other hand, some operas, such as Die Zauberflöte, and most operettas, have some unaccompanied dialogue); on dancing (particularly by the principal performers as well as the chorus); on the use of various genres of popular music (or at least popular singing styles); and on the avoidance of certain operatic conventions. In particular, a musical is almost always performed in the language of its audience. Musicals produced in London or New York, for instance, are invariably sung in English, even if they were originally written in another language (e.g. Les Misérables was originally written in French). While an opera singer is primarily a singer and only secondarily an actor (and rarely needs to dance), a musical theatre performer is often an actor first and then a singer and dancer. Someone who is equally accomplished at all three is referred to as a "triple threat". Composers of music for musicals often consider the vocal demands of roles with musical theatre performers in mind. Today, large theatres staging musicals generally use microphones and amplification of the actors' singing voices in a way that would generally be disapproved of in an operatic context.
Some works (e.g. by George Gershwin, Leonard Bernstein and Stephen Sondheim) have received both "musical theatre" and "operatic" productions.[5][6] Similarly, some older operettas or light operas (such as The Pirates of Penzance by Gilbert and Sullivan) have had modern productions or adaptations that treat them as musicals. For some works, production styles are almost as important as the work's musical or dramatic content in defining into which art form the piece falls.[7] Sondheim said, "I really think that when something plays Broadway it's a musical, and when it plays in an opera house it's opera. That's it. It's the terrain, the countryside, the expectations of the audience that make it one thing or another."[8] Although this article primarily concerns musical theatre works that are "non-operatic", the overlap remains between lighter operatic forms and more musically complex or ambitious musicals. In practice, it is often difficult to distinguish among the various kinds of musical theatre, including "musical play", "musical comedy", "operetta" and "light opera".
Like opera, the singing in musical theatre is generally accompanied by an instrumental ensemble called a pit orchestra, located in a lowered area in front of the stage. While opera typically uses a conventional symphony orchestra, musicals are generally orchestrated for ensembles ranging from 27 players down to only a few players. Rock musicals usually employ a small group of mostly rock instruments,[9] and some musicals may call for only a piano or two instruments.[10]
Other forms
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There are various Eastern traditions of theatre that include music, such as Chinese Opera, Taiwanese opera, Noh and Musical theatre in India, including Sanskrit drama, Classical Indian dance and Yakshagana.[11] India has, since the 20th century, produced numerous musical films, referred to as "Bollywood" musicals, and in Japan a series of musicals based on popular Anime and Manga comics has developed in recent decades. Shorter or simplified "junior" versions of many musicals are available for schools and youth groups, and very short works created or adapted for performance by children are sometimes called minimusicals.[12][13]
History
Early Antecedents of musical theatre
The antecedents of musical theatre in Europe can be traced back to the theatre of ancient Greece, where music and dance were included in stage comedies and tragedies during the 5th century BCE.[14] The music from the ancient forms is lost, however, and they had little influence on later development of musical theatre.[15] In the 12th and 13th centuries, religious dramas taught the liturgy. Groups of actors would use outdoor Pageant wagons (stages on wheels) to tell each part of the story. Poetic forms sometimes alternated with the prose dialogues, and liturgical chants gave way to new melodies.[16]
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The European Renaissance saw older forms evolve into two antecedents of musical theatre: commedia dell'arte, where raucous clowns improvised familiar stories, and later, opera buffa. In England, Elizabethan and Jacobean plays frequently included music,[17] and short musical plays began to be included in an evenings' dramatic entertainments.[18] Court masques developed during the Tudor period that involved music, dancing, singing and acting, often with expensive costumes and a complex stage design.[19][20] These developed into sung plays that are recognizable as English operas, the first usually being thought of as The Siege of Rhodes (1656).[21] In France, meanwhile, Molière turned several of his farcical comedies into musical entertainments with songs (music provided by Jean Baptiste Lully) and dance in the late 17th century. These influenced a brief period of English opera[22] by composers such as John Blow[23] and Henry Purcell.[21]
From the 18th century, the most popular forms of musical theatre in Britain were ballad operas, like John Gay's The Beggar's Opera, that included lyrics written to the tunes of popular songs of the day (often spoofing opera), and later pantomime, which developed from commedia dell'arte, and comic opera with mostly romantic plot lines, like Michael Balfe's The Bohemian Girl (1845). Meanwhile, on the continent, singspiel, comédie en vaudeville, opéra comique and other forms of light musical entertainment were emerging. The Beggar's Opera was the first recorded long-running play of any kind, running for 62 successive performances in 1728. It would take almost a century afterwards before any play broke 100 performances, but the record soon reached 150 in the late 1820s.[24] Other musical theatre forms developed in England by the 19th century, such as music hall, melodrama and burletta, which were popularized partly because most London theatres were licensed only as music halls and not allowed to present plays without music.
Colonial America did not have a significant theatre presence until 1752, when London entrepreneur William Hallam sent a company of actors to the colonies managed by his brother Lewis.[25] In New York in the summer of 1753, they performed ballad-operas, such as The Beggar’s Opera, and ballad-farces.[25] By the 1840s, P.T. Barnum was operating an entertainment complex in lower Manhattan.[26] Other early musical theatre in America consisted of British forms, such as burletta and pantomime,[15] but what a piece was called did not necessarily define what it was. The 1852 Broadway extravaganza The Magic Deer advertised itself as "A Serio Comico Tragico Operatical Historical Extravaganzical Burletical Tale of Enchantment."[27] Theatre in New York moved from downtown gradually to midtown from around 1850, and did not arrive in the Times Square area until the 1920s and 1930s. Broadway's The Elves (1857) broke the 50 performance barrier. New York runs continued to lag far behind those in London, but Laura Keene's "musical burletta" Seven Sisters (1860) shattered previous New York records with a run of 253 performances.[28]
1850s to 1880s
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Around 1850, the French composer Hervé was experimenting with a form of comic musical theatre he called opérette.[29] The best known composers of operetta were Jacques Offenbach from the 1850s to the 1870s and Johann Strauss II in the 1870s and 1880s.[15] Offenbach's fertile melodies, combined with his librettists' witty satire, formed a model for the musical theatre that followed.[30] Adaptations of the French operettas (played in mostly bad, risqué translations), musical burlesques, music hall, pantomime and burletta dominated the London musical stage into the 1870s.[31]
In America, mid-18th century musical theatre entertainments included crude variety revue, which eventually developed into vaudeville, minstrel shows, which soon crossed the Atlantic to Britain, and Victorian burlesque, first popularized in the US by British troupes.[15] The first original theatre piece in English that conforms to many of the modern definitions of a musical, including dance and original music that helped to tell the story, is generally considered The Black Crook, which premiered in New York on September 12, 1866. The production was a staggering five-and-a-half hours long, but despite its length, it ran for a record-breaking 474 performances. The same year, The Black Domino/Between You, Me and the Post was the first show to call itself a "musical comedy." Comedians Edward Harrigan and Tony Hart produced and starred in musicals on Broadway between 1878 (The Mulligan Guard Picnic) and 1885. These musical comedies featured characters and situations taken from the everyday life of New York's lower classes and represented a significant step forward towards a more legitimate theatrical form. They starred high quality singers (Lillian Russell, Vivienne Segal, and Fay Templeton) instead of the ladies of questionable repute who had starred in earlier musical forms.
As transportation improved, poverty in London and New York diminished, and street lighting made for safer travel at night, the number of patrons for the growing number of theatres increased enormously. Plays ran longer, leading to better profits and improved production values, and men began to bring their families to the theatre. The first musical theatre piece to exceed 500 consecutive performances was the French operetta The Chimes of Normandy in 1878.[24] English comic opera adopted many of the successful ideas of European operetta, none more successfully than the series of more than a dozen long-running Gilbert and Sullivan comic operas, including H.M.S. Pinafore (1878) and The Mikado (1885).[30] These were sensations on both sides of the Atlantic and in Australia and helped to raise the standard for what was considered a successful show.[32] These shows were designed for family audiences, a marked contrast from the risqué burlesques, bawdy music hall shows and French operettas that sometimes drew a crowd seeking less wholesome entertainment.[31] Only a few 19th-century musical pieces exceeded the run of The Mikado, such as Dorothy, which opened in 1886 and set a new record with a run of 931 performances. Gilbert and Sullivan's influence on later musical theatre was profound, creating examples of how to "integrate" musicals so that the lyrics and dialogue advanced a coherent story.[33][34] Their works were admired and copied by early authors and composers of musicals in Britain[35][36] and America.[32][37]
1890s to the new century
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A Trip to Chinatown (1891) was Broadway's long-run champion (until Irene in 1919), running for 657 performances, but New York runs continued to be relatively short, with a few exceptions, compared with London runs, until the 1920s.[24] Gilbert and Sullivan were both pirated and imitated in New York by productions such as Reginald de Koven's Robin Hood (1891) and John Philip Sousa's El Capitan (1896). A Trip to Coontown (1898) was the first musical comedy entirely produced and performed by African Americans on Broadway (largely inspired by the routines of the minstrel shows), followed by ragtime-tinged shows. Hundreds of musical comedies were staged on Broadway in the 1890s and early 20th century, composed of songs written in New York's Tin Pan Alley, including those by George M. Cohan, who worked to create an American style distinct from the Gilbert and Sullivan works. The most successful New York shows were often followed by extensive national tours.[38]
Meanwhile, musicals took over the London stage in the Gay Nineties, led by producer George Edwardes, who perceived that audiences wanted a new alternative to the Savoy-style comic operas and their intellectual, political, absurdist satire. He experimented with a modern-dress, family-friendly musical theatre style, with breezy, popular songs, snappy, romantic banter, and stylish spectacle at the Gaiety and his other theatres. These drew on the traditions of comic opera and used elements of burlesque and of the Harrigan and Hart pieces. He replaced the bawdy women of burlesque with his "respectable" corps of Gaiety Girls to complete the musical and visual fun. The success of the first of these, In Town (1892) and A Gaiety Girl (1893) set the style for the next three decades. The plots were generally light, romantic "poor maiden loves aristocrat and wins him against all odds" shows, with music by Ivan Caryll, Sidney Jones and Lionel Monckton. These shows were immediately widely copied in America, and the Edwardian musical comedy swept away the earlier musical forms of comic opera and operetta. The Geisha (1896) was one of the most successful in the 1890s, running for more than two years and achieving great international success.
The Belle of New York (1898) became the first American musical to run for over a year in London. The British musical comedy Florodora (1899) was a popular success on both sides of the Atlantic, as was A Chinese Honeymoon (1901), which ran for a record-setting 1,074 performances in London and 376 in New York. After the turn of the 20th century, Seymour Hicks joined forces with Edwardes and American producer Charles Frohman to create another decade of popular shows. Other enduring Edwardian musical comedy hits included The Arcadians (1909) and The Quaker Girl (1910).[39]
Early 20th century
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Virtually eliminated from the English-speaking stage by competition from the ubiquitous Edwardian musical comedies, operettas returned to London and Broadway in 1907 with The Merry Widow, and adaptations of continental operettas became direct competitors with musicals. Franz Lehár and Oscar Straus composed new operettas that were popular in English until World War I.[40] In America, Victor Herbert produced a string of enduring operettas including The Fortune Teller (1898), Babes in Toyland (1903), Mlle. Modiste (1905), The Red Mill (1906) and Naughty Marietta (1910).
In the 1910s, the team of P. G. Wodehouse, Guy Bolton and Jerome Kern, following in the footsteps of Gilbert and Sullivan, created the "Princess Theatre shows" and paved the way for Kern's later work by showing that a musical could combine light, popular entertainment with continuity between its story and songs.[33] Historian Gerald Bordman wrote:
"These shows built and polished the mold from which almost all later major musical comedies evolved. ... The characters and situations were, within the limitations of musical comedy license, believable and the humor came from the situations or the nature of the characters. Kern's exquisitely flowing melodies were employed to further the action or develop characterization. ... [Edwardian] musical comedy was often guilty of inserting songs in a hit-or-miss fashion. The Princess Theatre musicals brought about a change in approach. P. G. Wodehouse, the most observant, literate, and witty lyricist of his day, and the team of Bolton, Wodehouse, and Kern had an influence felt to this day.[41]
The theatre-going public needed escapist entertainment during the dark times of World War I, and they flocked to the theatre. The 1919 hit musical Irene ran for 670 performances, a Broadway record that held until 1938.[42] The British theatre public supported far longer runs like that of Maid of the Mountains (1,352 performances) and especially Chu Chin Chow. Its run of 2,238 performances was more than twice as long as any previous musical, setting a record that stood for nearly forty years.[43] Revues like The Bing Boys Are Here in Britain, and those of Florenz Ziegfeld and his imitators in America, were also extraordinarily popular.[27]
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The musicals of the Roaring Twenties, borrowing from vaudeville, music hall and other light entertainments, tended to emphasize big dance routines and popular songs at the expense of plot. Typical of the decade were lighthearted productions like Sally, Lady Be Good, No, No, Nanette, Oh, Kay! and Funny Face. Despite forgettable stories, these musicals featured stars such as Marilyn Miller and Fred Astaire and produced dozens of enduring popular songs by Kern, George and Ira Gershwin, Irving Berlin, Cole Porter, and Rodgers and Hart. Popular music was dominated by musical theatre standards, such as "Fascinating Rhythm", "Tea for Two" and "Someone to Watch Over Me". Many shows were revues, series of sketches and songs with little or no connection between them. The best-known of these were the annual Ziegfeld Follies, spectacular song-and-dance revues on Broadway featuring extravagant sets, elaborate costumes, and beautiful chorus girls.[15] These spectacles also raised production values, and mounting a musical generally became more expensive.[27] Shuffle Along (1921), an all-African American show was a hit on Broadway.[44] A new generation of composers of operettas also emerged in the 1920s, such as Rudolf Friml and Sigmund Romberg, to create a series of popular Broadway hits.[45]
In London, writer-stars such as Ivor Novello and Noël Coward became popular, but the primacy of British musical theatre from the 19th century through 1920 was gradually replaced by American innovation after the war as Kern and other Tin Pan Alley composers began to bring new musical styles such as ragtime and jazz to the theatres and the Shubert Brothers took control of the Broadway theatres. Musical theatre writer Andrew Lamb notes, "The operatic and theatrical styles of nineteenth-century social structures were replaced by a musical style more aptly suited to twentieth-century society and its vernacular idiom. It was from America that the more direct style emerged, and in America that it was able to flourish in a developing society less hidebound by nineteenth-century tradition."[46]
Show Boat and The Great Depression
Progressing far beyond the comparatively frivolous musicals and sentimental operettas of the decade, Broadway's Show Boat (1927), represented an even more complete integration of book and score than the Princess Theatre musicals, with dramatic themes told through the music, dialogue, setting and movement. This was accomplished by combining the lyricism of Kern's music with the skillful libretto of Oscar Hammerstein II. One historian wrote, "Here we come to a completely new genre – the musical play as distinguished from musical comedy. Now ... everything else was subservient to that play. Now ... came complete integration of song, humor and production numbers into a single and inextricable artistic entity."[47]
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As the Great Depression set in during the post-Broadway national tour of Show Boat, the public turned back to mostly light, escapist song-and-dance entertainment.[41] Audiences on both sides of the Atlantic had little money to spend on entertainment, and only a few stage shows anywhere exceeded a run of 500 performances during the decade. The revue The Band Wagon (1931) starred dancing partners Fred Astaire and his sister Adele, while Porter's Anything Goes (1934) confirmed Ethel Merman's position as the First Lady of musical theatre, a title she maintained for many years. Coward and Novello continued to deliver old fashioned, sentimental musicals, such as The Dancing Years, while Rodgers and Hart returned from Hollywood to create a series of successful Broadway shows, including On Your Toes (1936, with Ray Bolger, the first Broadway musical to make dramatic use of classical dance), Babes In Arms (1937) and The Boys From Syracuse (1938). Porter added DuBarry Was a Lady (1939). The longest-running piece of musical theatre of the 1930s was Hellzapoppin (1938), a revue with audience participation, which played for 1,404 performances, setting a new Broadway record.[42]
Still, a few creative teams began to build on Show Boat's innovations. Of Thee I Sing (1931), a political satire by the Gershwins, was the first musical awarded the Pulitzer Prize.[15][48] As Thousands Cheer (1933), a revue by Irving Berlin and Moss Hart in which each song or sketch was based on a newspaper headline, marked the first Broadway show in which an African-American, Ethel Waters, starred alongside white actors. Waters' numbers included "Supper Time", a woman's lament for her husband who has been lynched.[49] The Gershwins' Porgy and Bess (1935) featured an all African-American cast and blended operatic, folk, and jazz idioms. The Cradle Will Rock (1937), directed by Orson Welles, was a highly political pro-union piece that, despite the controversy surrounding it, ran for 108 performances.[27] Rodgers and Hart's I'd Rather Be Right (1937) was a political satire with George M. Cohan as President Franklin D. Roosevelt, and Kurt Weill's Knickerbocker Holiday depicted New York City's early history while good-naturedly satirizing Roosevelt's good intentions.
The motion picture mounted a challenge to the stage. Silent films had presented only limited competition, but by the end of the 1920s, films like The Jazz Singer could be presented with synchronized sound. "Talkie" films at low prices effectively killed off vaudeville by the early 1930s.[50] Despite the economic woes of the 1930s and the competition from film, the musical survived. In fact, it continued to evolve thematically beyond the gags and showgirls musicals of the Gay Nineties and Roaring Twenties and the sentimental romance of operetta, adding technical expertise and the fast-paced staging and naturalistic dialogue style led by director George Abbott.[15]
The Golden Age (1940s to 1960s)
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1940s
The 1940s would begin with more hits from Porter, Irving Berlin, Rodgers and Hart, Weill and Gershwin, some with runs over 500 performances as the economy rebounded, but artistic change was in the air.
Rodgers and Hammerstein's Oklahoma! completed the revolution begun by Show Boat, by tightly integrating all the aspects of musical theatre, with a cohesive plot, songs that furthered the action of the story, and featured dream ballets and other dances that advanced the plot and developed the characters, rather than using dance as an excuse to parade scantily clad women across the stage.[3] Rodgers and Hammerstein hired ballet choreographer Agnes de Mille, who used everyday motions to help the characters express their ideas. It defied musical conventions by raising its first act curtain not on a bevy of chorus girls, but rather on a woman churning butter, with an off-stage voice singing the opening lines of Oh, What a Beautiful Mornin' unaccompanied. It drew rave reviews, set off a box-office frenzy and received a Pulitzer Prize. Brooks Atkinson wrote in The New York Times that the show's opening number changed the history of musical theater: “After a verse like that, sung to a buoyant melody, the banalities of the old musical stage became intolerable."[51] It was the first "blockbuster" Broadway show, running a total of 2,212 performances, and was made into a hit film. It remains one of the most frequently produced of the team's projects. William A. Everett and Paul R. Laird wrote that this was a "show, that, like Show Boat, became a milestone, so that later historians writing about important moments in twentieth-century theatre would begin to identify eras according to their relationship to Oklahoma!"[52]
"After Oklahoma!, Rodgers and Hammerstein were the most important contributors to the musical-play form... The examples they set in creating vital plays, often rich with social thought, provided the necessary encouragement for other gifted writers to create musical plays of their own".[47] The two collaborators created an extraordinary collection of some of musical theatre's best loved and most enduring classics, including Carousel (1945), South Pacific (1949), The King and I (1951), and The Sound of Music (1959). Some of these musicals treat more serious subject matter than most earlier shows: the villain in Oklahoma! is a suspected murderer and psychopath with a fondness for lewd post cards; Carousel deals with spousal abuse, thievery, suicide and the afterlife; South Pacific explores miscegenation even more thoroughly than Show Boat; and the hero of The King and I dies onstage.
The show's creativity stimulated Rodgers and Hammerstein's contemporaries and ushered in the "Golden Age" of American musical theatre.[51] Americana was displayed on Broadway during the "Golden Age", as the wartime cycle of shows began to arrive. An example of this is On the Town (1944), written by Betty Comden and Adolph Green, composed by Leonard Bernstein and choreographed by Jerome Robbins. The story is set during wartime and concerns three sailors who are on a 24-hour shore leave in New York City, during which each falls in love. The show also gives the impression of a country with an uncertain future, as the sailors and their women also have. Irving Berlin used sharpshooter Annie Oakley's career as a basis for his Annie Get Your Gun (1946, 1,147 performances); Burton Lane, E. Y. Harburg, and Fred Saidy combined political satire with Irish whimsy for their fantasy Finian's Rainbow (1947, 725 performances); and Cole Porter found inspiration in William Shakespeare's Taming of the Shrew for Kiss Me, Kate (1948, 1,077 performances). The American musicals overwhelmed the old-fashioned British Coward/Novello-style shows, one of the last big successes of which was Novello's Perchance to Dream (1945, 1,021 performances). The formula for the Golden Age musicals reflected one or more of four widely held perceptions of the "American dream": That stability and worth derives from a love relationship sanctioned and restricted by Protestant ideals of marriage; that a married couple should make a moral home with children away from the city in a suburb or small town; that the woman's function was as homemaker and mother; and that Americans incorporate an independent and pioneering spirit or that their success is self-made.[53]
1950s
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Damon Runyon's eclectic characters were at the core of Frank Loesser's and Abe Burrows' Guys and Dolls, (1950, 1,200 performances); and the Gold Rush was the setting for Alan Jay Lerner and Frederick Loewe's Paint Your Wagon (1951). The relatively brief seven-month run of that show didn't discourage Lerner and Loewe from collaborating again, this time on My Fair Lady (1956), an adaptation of George Bernard Shaw's Pygmalion starring Rex Harrison and Julie Andrews, which at 2,717 performances held the long-run record for many years. Popular Hollywood films were made of all of these musicals. The Boy Friend (1954) ran for 2,078 performances in London, briefly becoming the third longest-running musical in West End or Broadway history (after Chu Chin Chow and Oklahoma!), until it was demoted by until Salad Days, which marked Julie Andrews' American debut.[43]
Another record was set by The Threepenny Opera, which ran for 2,707 performances, becoming the longest-running off-Broadway musical until The Fantasticks. The production also broke ground by showing that musicals could be profitable off-Broadway in a small-scale, small orchestra format. This was confirmed in 1959 when a revival of Jerome Kern and P. G. Wodehouse's Leave It to Jane ran for more than two years. The 1959–1960 Off-Broadway season included a dozen musicals and revues including Little Mary Sunshine, The Fantasticks and Ernest in Love, a musical adaptation of Oscar Wilde's 1895 hit The Importance of Being Earnest.[54]
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West Side Story (1957) transported Romeo and Juliet to modern day New York City and converted the feuding Montague and Capulet families into opposing ethnic gangs, the Jets and the Sharks. The book was adapted by Arthur Laurents, with music by Leonard Bernstein and lyrics by newcomer Stephen Sondheim. It was embraced by the critics, but failed to be a popular choice for the "blue-haired matinee ladies," who preferred the small town River City, Iowa of Meredith Willson's The Music Man to the alleys of Manhattan's Upper West Side. Apparently Tony Award voters were of a similar mind, since they favored the former over the latter. West Side Story had a respectable run of 732 performances (1,040 in the West End), while The Music Man ran nearly twice as long, with 1,375 performances. However, the film of West Side Story was extremely successful.[55] Laurents and Sondheim teamed up again for Gypsy (1959, 702 performances), with Jule Styne providing the music for a backstage story about the most driven stage mother of all-time, stripper Gypsy Rose Lee's mother Rose. The original production ran for 702 performances, and was given four subsequent revivals, with Angela Lansbury, Tyne Daly, Bernadette Peters and Patti LuPone later tackling the role made famous by Ethel Merman.
Although directors and choreographers have had a major influence on musical theatre style since at least the 19th century,[56] George Abbott and his collaborators and successors took a central role in integrating movement and dance fully into musical theatre productions in the Golden Age.[57] Abbott introduced ballet as a story-telling device in On Your Toes in 1936, which was followed by Agnes DeMille's ballet and choreography in Oklahoma!.[58] After Abbott collaborated with Jerome Robbins in On the Town and other shows, Robbins combined the roles of director and choreographer, emphasizing the story-telling power of dance in West Side Story, A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum (1962) and Fiddler on the Roof (1964). Bob Fosse choreographed for Abbott in The Pajama Game (1956) and Damn Yankees (1957), injecting playful sexuality into those hits. He was later the director-choreographer for Sweet Charity (1968), Pippin (1972) and Chicago (1975). Other notable director-choreographers have included Gower Champion, Tommy Tune, Michael Bennett, Gillian Lynne and Susan Stroman. Prominent directors have included Hal Prince, who also got his start with Abbott,[57] and Trevor Nunn.[59]
During the Golden Age, automotive companies and other large corporations began to hire Broadway talent to write corporate musicals, private shows only seen by their employees or customers.[60][61] The 1950s ended with Rodgers and Hammerstein's last hit, The Sound of Music, which also became another hit for Mary Martin. It ran for 1,443 performances and shared the Tony Award for Best Musical. Together with its extremely successful 1965 film version, it has become one of the most popular musicals in history.
1960s
In 1960, The Fantasticks was first produced off-Broadway. This intimate allegorical show would quietly run for over 40 years at the Sullivan Street Theatre in Greenwich Village, becoming by far the longest-running musical in history. Its authors produced other innovative works in the 1960s, such as Celebration and I Do! I Do!, the first two-character Broadway musical. The 1960s would see a number of blockbusters, like Fiddler on the Roof (1964; 3,242 performances), Hello, Dolly! (1964; 2,844 performances), Funny Girl (1964; 1,348 performances), and Man of La Mancha (1965; 2,328 performances), and some more risqué pieces like Cabaret, before ending with the emergence of the rock musical. Two men had considerable impact on musical theatre history beginning in this decade: Stephen Sondheim and Jerry Herman.
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The first project for which Sondheim wrote both music and lyrics was A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum (1962, 964 performances), with a book based on the works of Plautus by Burt Shevelove and Larry Gelbart, and starring Zero Mostel. Sondheim moved the musical beyond its concentration on the romantic plots typical of earlier eras; his work tended to be darker, exploring the grittier sides of life both present and past. Other early Sondheim works include Anyone Can Whistle (1964, which ran only nine performances, despite having stars Lee Remick and Angela Lansbury), and the successful Company (1970), Follies (1971) and A Little Night Music (1973). Later, Sondheim found inspiration in unlikely sources: the opening of Japan to Western trade for Pacific Overtures (1976), a legendary murderous barber seeking revenge in the Industrial Age of London for Sweeney Todd (1979), the paintings of Georges Seurat for Sunday in the Park with George (1984), fairy tales for Into the Woods (1987), and a collection of presidential assassins in Assassins (1990).
While some critics have argued that some of Sondheim’s musicals lack commercial appeal, others have praised their lyrical sophistication and musical complexity, as well as the interplay of lyrics and music in his shows. Some of Sondheim's notable innovations include a show presented in reverse (Merrily We Roll Along) and the above-mentioned Anyone Can Whistle, in which the first act ends with the cast informing the audience that they are mad.
Jerry Herman played a significant role in American musical theatre, beginning with his first Broadway production, Milk and Honey (1961, 563 performances), about the founding of the state of Israel, and continuing with the blockbuster hits Hello, Dolly! (1964, 2,844 performances), Mame (1966, 1,508 performances), and La Cage aux Folles (1983, 1,761 performances). Even his less successful shows like Dear World (1969) and Mack & Mabel (1974) have had memorable scores (Mack & Mabel was later reworked into a London hit). Writing both words and music, many of Herman's show tunes have become popular standards, including "Hello, Dolly!", "We Need a Little Christmas", "I Am What I Am", "Mame", "The Best of Times", "Before the Parade Passes By", "Put On Your Sunday Clothes", "It Only Takes a Moment", "Bosom Buddies", and "I Won't Send Roses", recorded by such artists as Louis Armstrong, Eydie Gorme, Barbra Streisand, Petula Clark and Bernadette Peters. Herman's songbook has been the subject of two popular musical revues, Jerry's Girls (Broadway, 1985), and Showtune (off-Broadway, 2003).
The musical started to diverge from the relatively narrow confines of the 1950s. Rock music would be used in several Broadway musicals, beginning with Hair, which featured not only rock music but also nudity and controversial opinions about the Vietnam War, race relations and other social issues.[62]
Social themes
After Show Boat and Porgy and Bess, and as the struggle in America and elsewhere for minorities' civil rights progressed, Hammerstein, Harold Arlen, Yip Harburg and others were emboldened to write more musicals and operas that aimed to normalize societal toleration of minorities and urged racial harmony. Early Golden Age works that focused on racial tolerance included Finian's Rainbow, South Pacific, and The King and I. Towards the end of the Golden Age, several shows tackled Jewish subjects and issues, such as Fiddler on the Roof, Milk and Honey, Blitz! and later Rags. The original concept that became West Side Story was set in the Lower East Side during Easter-Passover celebrations; the rival gangs were to be Jewish and Italian Catholic. The creative team later decided that the Polish (white) vs. Puerto Rican conflict was fresher.[63]
Tolerance as an important theme in musicals has continued in recent decades. The final expression of West Side Story left a message of racial tolerance. By the end of the 1960s, musicals became racially integrated, with black and white cast members even covering each other's roles, as they did in Hair.[64] Homosexuality has been explored in musicals, beginning with Hair, and even more overtly in La Cage aux Folles, Falsettos and others. The 1998 musical Parade is a sensitive exploration of both anti-Semitism and historical American racism.
1970s to present
1970s
After the success of Hair, rock musicals flourished in the 1970s, with as Jesus Christ Superstar, Godspell, The Rocky Horror Show, Evita, and Two Gentlemen of Verona. Some of these rock musicals began with "concept albums" and then moved to film or stage, such as Tommy. Others had no dialogue or were otherwise reminiscent of opera, with dramatic, emotional themes; these sometimes started as concept albums and were referred to as rock operas. The musical also went in other directions. Shows like Raisin, Dreamgirls, Purlie, and The Wiz brought a significant African-American influence to Broadway. More varied musical genres and styles were incorporated into musicals both on and especially off-Broadway. At the same time, Stephen Sondheim found success with a series of musicals mentioned above.
1975 brought to the stage a dance musical called "tremendous" by the New York Times reviewer, Clive Barnes.[65] A Chorus Line emerged from recorded group therapy-style sessions Michael Bennett conducted with "gypsies" – those who sing and dance in support of the leading players – from the Broadway community. From hundreds of hours of tapes, James Kirkwood, Jr. and Nick Dante fashioned a book about an audition for a musical, incorporating many real-life stories from the sessions; some who attended the sessions eventually played variations of themselves or each other in the show. With music by Marvin Hamlisch and lyrics by Edward Kleban, A Chorus Line first opened at Joseph Papp's Public Theater in lower Manhattan. What initially had been planned as a limited engagement eventually moved to the Shubert Theatre on Broadway for a run of 6,137 performances, becoming the longest-running production in Broadway history up to that time. The show swept the Tony Awards and won the Pulitzer Prize, and its hit song, What I Did for Love, became an instant standard.
Broadway audiences welcomed musicals that varied from the usual style and substance. John Kander and Fred Ebb explored the rise of Nazism in Germany in Cabaret and Prohibition-era Chicago, which relied on old vaudeville techniques to tell its tale of murder and the media. Pippin, by Stephen Schwartz, was set in the days of Charlemagne. Federico Fellini's autobiographical film 8½ became Maury Yeston's Nine. At the end of the decade, Evita and Sweeney Todd were precursors to the darker, big budget musicals of the 1980s that depended on dramatic stories, sweeping scores and spectacular effects. But during this same period, old-fashioned values were still embraced in such hits as Annie, 42nd Street, My One and Only, and popular revivals of No, No, Nanette and Irene. Although many film versions of musicals were made in the 1970s, few were critical or box office successes, with the notable exceptions of Fiddler on the Roof (film), Cabaret (1972 film) and Grease (film).[66]
1980s
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The 1980s saw the influence of European "mega-musicals", or "pop operas", on Broadway, in the West End and elsewhere. These typically featured a pop-influenced score, had large casts and sets and were identified by their notable effects – a falling chandelier (in The Phantom of the Opera), a helicopter landing on stage (in Miss Saigon) – and big budgets. Many were based on novels or other works of literature. The most important writers of mega-musicals include the French team of Claude-Michel Schönberg and Alain Boublil, responsible for Les Misérables, which became the longest-running international musical hit in history. The team, in collaboration with Richard Maltby, Jr., continued to produce hits, including Miss Saigon, inspired by the Puccini opera Madame Butterfly.
The British composer Andrew Lloyd Webber saw similar success with Evita, based on the life of Argentina's Eva Perón; Cats, derived from the poems of T. S. Eliot (both of which musicals originally starred Elaine Paige); Starlight Express, performed on roller skates; The Phantom of the Opera, derived from the Gaston Leroux novel, "Le Fantôme de l'Opéra"; and Sunset Boulevard (from the classic film of the same name). These works ran (or are still running) for decades in both New York and London and had extraordinary international and touring success. The mega-musicals' huge budgets redefined expectations for financial success on Broadway and in the West End. In earlier years, it was possible for a show to be considered a hit after a run of several hundred performances, but with multimillion-dollar production costs, a show must run for years simply to turn a profit.
1990s
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In the 1990s, a new generation of theatrical composers emerged, including Jason Robert Brown and Michael John LaChiusa, and who began with productions Off-Broadway. The most conspicuous success of these artists was Jonathan Larson's show Rent (1996), a rock musical (based on the opera La bohème) about a struggling community of artists in Manhattan. While the cost of tickets to Broadway and West End musicals was escalating beyond the budget of many theatregoers, Rent was marketed to increase the popularity of musicals among a younger audience. It featured a young cast and a heavily rock-influenced score; the musical became a hit. Its young fans, many of them students, calling themselves RENTheads, camped out at the Nederlander Theatre in hopes of winning the lottery for $20 front row tickets, and some saw the show dozens of times. Other shows on Broadway followed Rent's lead by offering heavily discounted day-of-performance or standing-room tickets, although often the discounts are offered only to students.[67]
The 1990s also saw the influence of large corporations on the production of musicals. The most important has been Disney Theatrical Productions, which began adapting some of Disney's animated film musicals for the stage, starting with Beauty and the Beast (1994), The Lion King (1997) and Aida (2000), the latter two with music by Elton John. The Lion King is the highest-grossing musical in Broadway history.[68] The Who's Tommy (1993), a theatrical adaptation of the rock opera Tommy, achieved a healthy run of 899 performances but was criticized for sanitizing the story and "musical theatre-izing" the rock music.[69]
Despite the growing number of large-scale musicals in the 1980s and 1990s, a number of lower-budget, smaller-scale musicals managed to find critical and financial success, such as Falsettoland and Little Shop of Horrors, Bat Boy: The Musical and Blood Brothers. The topics of these pieces vary widely, and the music ranges from rock to pop, but they often are produced off-Broadway, or for smaller London theatres, and some of these stagings have been regarded as imaginative and innovative.[70]
2000s
- Trends
In the new century, familiarity has been embraced by producers and investors anxious to guarantee that they recoup their considerable investments, if not show a healthy profit. Some took (usually modest-budget) chances on the new and unusual, such as Urinetown (2001), Avenue Q (2003), Caroline or Change (2004), The 25th Annual Putnam County Spelling Bee (2005), The Light in the Piazza (2005), Spring Awakening (2006), In the Heights (2007), Next to Normal (2009) and American Idiot (2010). But most took a safe route with revivals of familiar fare, such as Fiddler on the Roof, A Chorus Line, South Pacific, Gypsy, Hair, West Side Story and Grease, or with other proven material, such as films (The Producers, Spamalot, Hairspray, Legally Blonde, The Color Purple, Xanadu, Billy Elliot and Shrek) or well-known literature (The Scarlet Pimpernel and Wicked) hoping that the shows would have a built-in audience as a result. Some critics consider the reuse of film plots, especially those from Disney (such as Mary Poppins, and The Little Mermaid) a redefinition of the Broadway and West End musical as a tourist attraction, rather than a creative outlet.[27]
Today it is less likely that a sole producer, such as David Merrick or Cameron Mackintosh, backs a production. Corporate sponsors dominate Broadway, and often alliances are formed to stage musicals, which require an investment of $10 million or more. In 2002, the credits for Thoroughly Modern Millie listed ten producers, and among those names were entities composed of several individuals.[71] Typically, off-Broadway and regional theatres tend to produce smaller and therefore less expensive musicals, and development of new musicals has increasingly taken place outside of New York and London or in smaller venues. For example, Spring Awakening and Grey Gardens were developed Off-Broadway before being launched on Broadway.
Several musicals returned to the spectacle format that was so successful in the 1980s, recalling extravaganzas that have been presented at times, throughout theatre history, since the ancient Romans staged mock sea battles. Examples include the musical adaptations of The Lord of the Rings (2007), Gone With the Wind (2008) and Spider-Man: Turn Off the Dark (2011). These musicals involved songwriters with little theatrical experience, and the expensive productions generally lost money. Conversely, The Drowsy Chaperone, Avenue Q, The 25th Annual Putnam County Spelling Bee and Xanadu, among others, have been presented in smaller-scale productions, mostly uninterrupted by an intermission, with short running times, and enjoyed financial success. In 2013, Time magazine reported a trend Off-Broadway has been "immersive" theatre, citing shows such as Natasha, Pierre & The Great Comet of 1812 (2012) and Here Lies Love (2013) in which the staging takes place around and within the audience.[72] The shows set a joint record, each receiving 11 nominations for Lucille Lortel Awards.[73] and feature contemporary scores.[74][75]
- Jukebox musicals
Another trend has been to create a minimal plot to fit a collection of songs that have already been hits. Following the earlier success of Buddy - The Buddy Holly Story, these have included Movin' Out (2002, based on the tunes of Billy Joel), Jersey Boys (2006, The Four Seasons), Rock of Ages (2009, featuring classic rock of the 1980s) and many others. This style is often referred to as the "jukebox musical".[76] Similar but more plot-driven musicals have been built around the canon of a particular pop group including Mamma Mia! (1999, based on the songs of ABBA), Our House (2002, based on the songs of Madness), and We Will Rock You (2002, based on the songs of Queen).
- Film and TV musicals
Live-action film musicals were nearly dead in the 1980s and early 1990s, with exceptions of Victor/Victoria, Little Shop of Horrors and the 1996 film of Evita.[77] In the new century, Baz Luhrmann began a revival of the film musical with Moulin Rouge! (2001). This was followed by Chicago in 2002; Phantom of the Opera in 2004; Dreamgirls in 2006; Hairspray, Across the Universe, Enchanted and Sweeney Todd all in 2007; Mamma Mia! in 2008; Nine in 2009; Burlesque in 2010; Les Misérables and Pitch Perfect in 2012, and Into The Woods in 2014. Dr. Seuss's How the Grinch Stole Christmas! (2000) and The Cat in the Hat (2003), turned children's books into live-action film musicals. After the immense success of Disney and other houses with animated film musicals beginning with The Little Mermaid in 1989 and running throughout the 1990s (including some more adult-themed films, like South Park: Bigger, Longer & Uncut (1999)), fewer animated film musicals were released in the first decade of the 21st century.[77] The genre made a comeback beginning in 2010 with Tangled (2010), Rio (2011) and Frozen (2013). In Asia, India continues to produce numerous "Bollywood" film musicals, and Japan produces "Anime" and "Manga" film musicals.
Made for TV musical films were popular in the 1990s, such as Gypsy (1993), Cinderella (1997) and Annie (1999). Several made for TV musicals in the first decade of the 21st century were adaptations of the stage version, such as South Pacific (2001), The Music Man (2003) and Once Upon A Mattress (2005), and a televised version of the stage musical Legally Blonde in 2007. Additionally, several musicals were filmed on stage and broadcast on Public Television, for example Contact in 2002 and Kiss Me, Kate and Oklahoma! in 2003. The made-for-TV musical High School Musical, and its several sequels, enjoyed particular success and were adapted for stage musicals and other media.
Some television shows have set episodes as a musical. Examples include episodes of Ally McBeal, Xena, the Buffy the Vampire Slayer episode Once More, with Feeling, That's So Raven, Daria, Oz, Scrubs (one episode was written by the creators of Avenue Q), Batman: The Brave and the Bold, episode "Mayhem of the Music Meister", and the 100th episode of That '70s Show, called That '70s Musical. Others have included scenes where characters suddenly begin singing and dancing in a musical-theatre style during an episode, such as in several episodes of The Simpsons, 30 Rock, Hannah Montana, South Park and Family Guy. The television series Cop Rock extensively used the musical format, as do the series Flight of the Conchords, Glee and Smash.
There have also been musicals made for the internet, including Dr. Horrible's Sing-Along Blog, about a low-rent super-villain played by Neil Patrick Harris. It was written during the WGA writer's strike.[78] Since 2006, reality TV shows have been used to help market musical revivals by holding a talent competition to cast (usually female) leads. Examples of these are How Do You Solve a Problem Like Maria?, Grease: You're the One that I Want!, Any Dream Will Do, Legally Blonde - The Musical: The Search for Elle Woods, I'd Do Anything and Over the Rainbow.
In 2013, NBC made the first live television broadcast of a musical in over 50 years, The Sound of Music Live!.[79] Although the production received mixed reviews, it was a ratings success, prompting suggestion by television executives that live musicals may be produced as an annual holiday event.[80]
International musicals
The U.S. and Britain were the most active sources of book musicals from the 19th century through much of the 20th century (although Europe produced various forms of popular light opera and operetta, for example Spanish Zarzuela, during that period and even earlier). However, the light musical stage in other countries has become more active in recent decades.
Musicals from other English-speaking countries (notably Australia and Canada) often do well locally, and occasionally even reach Broadway or the West End (e.g., The Boy from Oz and The Drowsy Chaperone). South Africa has an active musical theatre scene, with revues like African Footprint and Umoja and book musicals, such as Kat and the Kings and Sarafina! touring internationally. Locally, musicals like Vere, Love and Green Onions, Over the Rainbow: the all-new all-gay... extravaganza and Bangbroek Mountain and In Briefs – a queer little Musical have been produced successfully.
Successful musicals from continental Europe include shows from (among other countries) Germany (Elixier and Ludwig II), Austria (Tanz der Vampire, Elisabeth, Mozart! and Rebecca), Czech Republic (Dracula), France (Notre Dame de Paris, Les Misérables, Angélique, Marquise des Anges and Roméo et Juliette) and Spain (Hoy No Me Puedo Levantar and The Musical Sancho Panza).
Japan has recently seen the growth of an indigenous form of musical theatre, both animated and live action, mostly based on Anime and Manga, such as Kiki's Delivery Service and Tenimyu. The popular Sailor Moon metaseries has had twenty-nine Sailor Moon musicals, spanning thirteen years. Beginning in 1914, a series of popular revues have been performed by the all-female Takarazuka Revue, which currently fields five performing troupes. Elsewhere in Asia, the Indian Bollywood musical, mostly in the form of motion pictures, is tremendously successful.[81]
Hong Kong's first modern musical, produced in both Cantonese and Mandarin, is Snow.Wolf.Lake (1997). Beginning with a 2002 tour of Les Misérables, numerous Western musicals have been imported to mainland China and staged in English.[82] Attempts at localizing Western productions in China began in 2008 when Fame was produced in Mandarin with a full Chinese cast at the Central Academy of Drama in Beijing.[83] Since then, other western productions have been staged in China in Mandarin with a Chinese cast. The first Chinese production in the style of Western musical theatre was The Gold Sand in 2005.[82] In addition, Li Dun, a well-known Chinese producer, produced Butterflies, based on a classic Chinese love tragedy, in 2007 as well as Love U Teresa in 2011.[82]
Other countries with an especially active musicals scene include the Netherlands, Italy, Poland, Sweden, Mexico, Brazil, Argentina, Russia, and Turkey.[citation needed]
Relevance
The Broadway League announced that in the 2007–08 season, 12.27 million tickets were purchased for Broadway shows for a gross sale amount of almost a billion dollars.[84] The League further reported that during the 2006–07 season, approximately 65% of Broadway tickets were purchased by tourists, and that foreign tourists were 16% of attendees.[85] (These figures do not include off-Broadway and smaller venues.) The Society of London Theatre reported that 2007 set a record for attendance in London. Total attendees in the major commercial and grant-aided theatres in Central London were 13.6 million, and total ticket revenues were £469.7 million.[86] Also the international musicals scene has been particularly active in recent years. However, as Stephen Sondheim has noted:
You have two kinds of shows on Broadway – revivals and the same kind of musicals over and over again, all spectacles. You get your tickets for The Lion King a year in advance, and essentially a family... pass on to their children the idea that that's what the theater is – a spectacular musical you see once a year, a stage version of a movie. It has nothing to do with theater at all. It has to do with seeing what is familiar.... I don't think the theatre will die per se, but it's never going to be what it was.... It's a tourist attraction."[87]
The success of original material like Urinetown, Avenue Q, Spelling Bee and In the Heights, as well as creative re-imaginings of film properties, including Thoroughly Modern Millie, Hairspray, Billy Elliot and The Color Purple, and plays-turned-musicals, such as Spring Awakening, prompts theatre historian John Kenrick to write: "Is the Musical dead? ...Absolutely not! Changing? Always! The musical has been changing ever since Offenbach did his first rewrite in the 1850s. And change is the clearest sign that the musical is still a living, growing genre. Will we ever return to the so-called 'golden age,' with musicals at the center of popular culture? Probably not. Public taste has undergone fundamental changes, and the commercial arts can only flow where the paying public allows."[27]
See also
Notes and references
- ^ a b Morley 1987, p.15. Cite error: The named reference "Morley" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
- ^ Everett 2002, p. 137
- ^ a b Rubin, p. 438
- ^ Brantley, Ben (March 28, 2008). "Curtain Up! It's Patti's Turn at 'Gypsy'". The New York Times. Retrieved May 26, 2009.
- ^ "Porgy and Bess: That old black magic", The Independent, October 27, 2006, accessed November 1, 2009
- ^ Lister, David. "The Royal Opera opens a window on Sondheim", The Independent, April 5, 2003, accessed November 1, 2009
- ^ Teachout, Terry. "Sweeney Todd", National Endowment for the Arts website, accessed November 1, 2009
- ^ White, Michael (December 15, 2003). "Something for the weekend, sir?". London: The Independent. Retrieved May 26, 2009.
- ^ These may include electric guitar, electric bass synthesizer and drum kit.
- ^ Show index with links to orchestration information, MTIshows.com, accessed October 4, 2015
- ^ Gokulsing, 2004, p. 98.
- ^ "Mini Musicals", labyrinth.net.au, Cenarth Fox, 2001, accessed 22 January 2010
- ^ "Theatre Latte Da takes foray into mini-musical form". Star Tribune. March 30, 2002. Retrieved 15 January 2010. (registration required)
- ^ Thornton, Shay (2007). "A Wonderful Life" (PDF). Houston, TX: Theatre Under the Stars. p. 2. Archived from the original (PDF) on November 27, 2007. Retrieved May 26, 2009.
- ^ a b c d e f g Kenrick, John. "A Capsule History", Musicals101.com, 2003, accessed October 12, 2015
- ^ Hoppin 1978, pp. 180–181
- ^ Lord 2003, p. 41
- ^ Lord 2003, p. 42
- ^ Buelow 2004, p. 26
- ^ Shakespeare 1998, p. 44
- ^ a b Buelow 2004, p. 328
- ^ Carter and Butt 2005, p. 280
- ^ Parker 2001, p. 42
- ^ a b c Gillan, Don (2007). "Longest Running Plays in London and New York". Stage Beauty. Retrieved May 26, 2009.
- ^ a b Wilmeth and Miller, p. 182
- ^ Wilmeth and Miller, p. 56
- ^ a b c d e f Kenrick, John. "History of Stage Musicals", Musicals101.com, 2003, accessed May 26, 2009
- ^ Allen 1991, p. 106
- ^ Lubbock, Mark. "The Music of 'Musicals'". The Musical Times, Vol. 98, No. 1375 (September, 1957), pp. 483–85, Musical Times Publications Ltd., accessed 17 August 2010
- ^ a b Lubbock, Mark. "The Music of 'Musicals'", The Musical Times, Vol. 98, No. 1375 (September 1957), pp. 483–485 (subscription required)
- ^ a b Bond, Jessie. Introduction to The Life and Reminiscences of Jessie Bond, reprinted at The Gilbert and Sullivan Archive, accessed March 4, 2011
- ^ a b Kenrick, John. "G&S in the USA" at the musicals101 website The Cyber Encyclopedia of Musical Theatre, TV and Film (2008). Retrieved on 4 May 2012.
- ^ a b Jones, 2003, pp. 10–11
- ^ Bargainnier, Earl F. "W. S. Gilbert and American Musical Theatre", pp. 120–33, American Popular Music: Readings from the Popular Press by Timothy E. Scheurer, Popular Press, 1989 ISBN 0-87972-466-8
- ^ PG Wodehouse (1881–1975), guardian.co.uk, Retrieved on 21 May 2007
- ^ "List of allusions to G&S in Wodehouse". Home.lagrange.edu. Retrieved 27 May 2009.
- ^ Meyerson, Harold and Ernest Harburg Who Put the Rainbow in the Wizard of Oz?: Yip Harburg, Lyricist, pp 15-17 (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1993); and Bradley (2005), p. 9
- ^ Mark Evan Swartz's Oz Before the Rainbow describes the enormous train trips required of the cast of the 1903 smash hit, The Wizard of Oz, which tour ran for nine years, including on the road. "Oz Before the Rainbow: L. Frank Baum's 'The Wonderful Wizard of Oz' on Stage and Screen to 1939". The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2000 ISBN 0-8018-6477-1
- ^ See, generally, Index to The Gaiety, a British musical theatre publication about Victorian and Edwardian musical theatre.
- ^ Kenrick, John. Basil Hood, Who's Who in Musicals: Additional Bios XII, Musicals101.com, 2004, accessed May 7, 2012
- ^ a b Bordman, Gerald. "Jerome David Kern: Innovator/Traditionalist", The Musical Quarterly, 1985, Vol. 71, No. 4, pp. 468–73
- ^ a b Kenrick, John. Hellzapoppin - History of The Musical Stage 1930s: Part III - Revues, Musicals101.com, accessed October 8, 2015
- ^ a b "Salad Days History, Story, Roles and Musical Numbers" guidetomusicaltheatre.com, accessed March 16, 2012
- ^ Krasner, David. A Beautiful Pageant: African American Theatre, Drama and Performance in the Harlem Renaissance, 1910–1927, Palgrave MacMillan, 2002, pp. 263–67
- ^ Midgette, Anne. "Operetta Review: Much Silliness In a Gilt Frame", The New York Times, March 29, 2003, accessed December 1, 2012
- ^ Lamb, Andrew (Spring 1986). "From Pinafore to Porter: United States-United Kingdom Interactions in Musical Theater, 1879–1929". American Music. 4 (British-American Musical Interactions). Chicago: University of Illinois Press: 47. ISSN 0734-4392. JSTOR 3052183.
{{cite journal}}
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(help) - ^ a b Lubbock (2002)
- ^ 1944 awards, Pulitzer.org, accessed July 7, 2012
- ^ Connema, Richard (2000). "San Francisco: As Thousands Cheer and Dear World". TalkinBroadway.Org, Inc. Retrieved May 26, 2009.
- ^ Kenrick, John. "History of Musical Film, 1927–30: Part II", Musicals101.com, 2004, accessed May 17, 2010
- ^ a b Gordon, John Steele. Oklahoma'!'. Retrieved June 13, 2010
- ^ Everett 2002, p. 124.
- ^ World Encyclopedia, pp. 439–40
- ^ Suskin, Steven (August 10, 2003). "On the Record: Ernest In Love, Marco Polo, Puppets and Maury Yeston". Playbill, Inc. Retrieved May 26, 2009.
- ^ Rich, Frank (March 12, 2000). "Conversations with Sondheim". New York Times Magazine. Retrieved May 26, 2009.
- ^ W.S. Gilbert and his choreographer John D'Auban helped transformed Victorian musical theatre production styles. See Vorder Bruegge, Andrew (Associate Professor, Department Chair, Department of Theatre and Dance, Winthrop University). "W. S. Gilbert: Antiquarian Authenticity and Artistic Autocracy" . Victorian Interdisciplinary Studies Association of the Western United States annual conference, October 2002. Retrieved 26 March 2008; and "Mr. D'Auban's 'Startrap' Jumps". The Times, 17 April 1922, p. 17
- ^ a b Kenrick, John. "Dance in Stage Musicals – Part III", Musicals101.com, 2003, accessed August 14, 2012
- ^ Block, Geoffrey (ed.) The Richard Rodgers Reader. New York: Oxford University Press US, 2006. ISBN 978-0-19-531343-7, pp. 194–95
- ^ Dickson, Andrew. "A life in theatre: Trevor Nunn", The Guardian, 18 November 2011, accessed August 15, 2012
- ^ John Kander (April 7, 2010). "Passing Through Curtains". NewMusicBox (Interview). Interviewed by Frank J. Oteri (published May 1, 2010).
- ^ Ward, Jonathan. "Recruit, Train and Motivate: The History of the Industrial Musical," March 2002, Perfect Sound Forever
- ^ Wollman, p. 12.
- ^ Laurents, Arthur (August 4, 1957). "The Growth of an Idea". New York Herald Tribune. Primate, LLC. Archived from the original on December 12, 2007. Retrieved May 26, 2009.
- ^ Horn 1991, p. 134.
- ^ Barnes, Clive. "Theater Review": A Chorus Line". The New York Times, May 22, 1975
- ^ Kenrick, John. "The 1970s: Big Names, Mixed Results", History of Musical Film, musicals101.com, accessed July 11, 2014
- ^ Blank, Matthew (March 1, 2011). "Broadway Rush, Lottery and Standing Room Only Policies". PlayBill. Retrieved March 1, 2011.
- ^ "Cumulative Broadway Grosses by Show". BroadwayWorld.com. Retrieved February 9, 2014.
- ^ Pareles, John (April 27, 1993). "Critic's Notebook; Damping 60's Fire of 'Tommy' for 90's Broadway". The New York Times. Retrieved June 28, 2012.
- ^ Shaw, Pete (2006). "A glorious musical romp – with bite!". Broadway Baby. Archived from the original on September 28, 2007. Retrieved May 26, 2009.
- ^ Thoroughly Modern Millie at the IBDB database
- ^ Zoglin, Richard. "Natasha, Imelda and the Great Immersion of 2013", Time magazine, May 20, 2013, accessed April 6, 2014
- ^ Cox, Gordon. "Here Lies Love, Great Comet Shatter Records in Lortel Nominations, Variety, April 1, 2014, accessed April 7, 2014
- ^ Clarke, David. "Natasha, Pierre and the Great Comet of 1812 (Original Cast Recording) is Astonishingly Complex", Broadway World, December 22, 2013, accessed April 7, 2014
- ^ Brantley, Ben. "A Rise to Power, Disco Round Included", The New York Times, April 23, 2013, accessed April 7, 2014
- ^ Kaye, Kimberly. "Broadway.com at 10: The 10 Biggest Broadway Trends of the Decade", Broadway.com, May 10, 2010, accessed August 14, 2012
- ^ a b Kenrick, John. "The 1980s", History of Musical Film, musicals101.com, accessed July 11, 2014; and Kenrick, John. "The 1990s: Disney & Beyond", History of Musical Film, musicals101.com, accessed July 11, 2014
- ^ Roush, Matt (June 30, 2008). "Exclusive: First Look at Joss Whedon's "Dr. Horrible"". TVGuide.com. Retrieved May 26, 2009.
- ^ Robert Bianco (December 6, 2013). "'Sound of Music' was a little off". USA TODAY.
- ^ Bill Carter (December 9, 2013). "NBC Says It Will Put On a Show, Again". New York Times.
- ^ Jha, p. 1970
- ^ a b c Zhou, Xiaoyan. Taking the Stage, Beijing Review, 2011, p. 42
- ^ Milestones: 2005–2009, Town Square Productions, accessed September 30, 2013
- ^ "The Broadway League Announces 2007–2008 Broadway Theatre Season Results" (Press release). Broadway League. May 28, 2008. Retrieved May 26, 2009.
- ^ "League Releases Annual "Demographics of the Broadway Audience Report" for 06-07" (Press release). Broadway League. November 5, 2007. Retrieved May 26, 2009.
- ^ "Record Attendances as Theatreland celebrates 100 Years" (PDF) (Press release). Society of London Theatre. January 18, 2008. Retrieved May 26, 2009.
- ^ Rich, Frank. "Conversations with Sondheim". New York Times Magazine, March 12, 2000
Cited books
- Allen, Robert C. (c. 1991). Horrible prettiness: burlesque and American culture. University of North Carolina. p. 350. ISBN 978-0-8078-1960-9.
- Bradley, Ian (2005). Oh Joy! Oh Rapture! The Enduring Phenomenon of Gilbert and Sullivan. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-516700-7.
- Buelow, George J. (2004). A history of baroque music. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press. p. 701. ISBN 978-0-253-34365-9.
- Carter, Tim; Butt, John, eds. (2005). The Cambridge history of seventeenth-century music. The Cambridge History of Music. Vol. 1. Cambridge University Press. p. 591. ISBN 978-0-521-79273-8.
- Everett, William A.; Laird, Paul R., eds. (2002). The Cambridge companion to the musical. Cambridge companions to music. Cambridge University Press. p. 310. ISBN 978-0-521-79189-2.
- Flinn, Denny M. (c. 1997). Musical! : a grand tour : the rise, glory and fall of an American institution. New York: Schirmer Books. p. 556. ISBN 978-0-02-864610-7.
- Gokulsing, K. Moti; Dissanayake, Wimal (2004) [1998]. Indian popular cinema : a narrative of cultural change (Revised and updated ed.). Stoke-on-Trent: Trentham. p. 161. ISBN 978-1-85856-329-9.
- Hoppin, Richard H., ed. (1978). Anthology of medieval music. Norton introduction to music history. New York, NY: Norton. p. 177. ISBN 978-0-393-09080-2.
- Horn, Barbara Lee (1991). The age of Hair: evolution and impact of Broadway’s first rock musical. New York, NY: Greenwood Press. p. 166. ISBN 978-0-313-27564-7.
- Jha, Subhash K. (2005). The Essential Guide to Bollywood. Roli Books. ISBN 81-7436-378-5.
- Jones, John B. (2003). Our Musicals, Ourselves. Hanover: University Press of New England. ISBN 978-1-58465-311-0.
- Lord, Suzanne (2003). Brinkman, David (ed.). Music from the age of Shakespeare : a cultural history. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press. p. 236. ISBN 978-0-313-31713-2.
- Lubbock, Mark (2002) [1962]. "American musical theatre: an introduction". The Complete Book of Light Opera (1st ed.). London: Putnam. pp. 753–56.
{{cite book}}
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suggested) (help) - Morley, Sheridan (c. 1987). Spread a little happiness: the first hundred years of the British musical. London: Thames and Hudson. p. 224. ISBN 978-0-500-01398-4.
- Parker, Roger, ed. (2001). The Oxford illustrated history of opera. Oxford illustrated histories (illustrated ed.). Oxford University Press. p. 541. ISBN 978-0-19-285445-2.
- Rubin, Don; Solórzano, Carlos, eds. (2000). The World Encyclopedia of Contemporary Theatre: The Americas. New York City: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-05929-1.
- Shakespeare, William (1998) [First published 1623]. Orgel, Stephen (ed.). The tempest. The Oxford Shakespeare. Oxford University Press. p. 248. ISBN 978-0-19-283414-0.
- Wilmeth, Don B.; Miller, Tice L., eds. (1996). Cambridge guide to American theatre (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-56444-1.
- Wollman, E. L. (2006). The Theater Will Rock: a History of the Rock Musical: From Hair to Hedwig. Michigan: University of Michigan Press. ISBN 0-472-11576-6.
Further reading
- Bauch, Marc. The American Musical. Marburg, Germany: Tectum Verlag, 2003. ISBN 3-8288-8458-X
- Bauch, Marc. Themes and Topics of the American Musical after World War II. Marburg, Germany: Tectum Verlag, 2001. ISBN 3-8288-1141-8
- Bloom, Ken; Frank Vlastnik (2004-10-01). Broadway Musicals : The 101 Greatest Shows of All Time. New York, New York: Black Dog & Leventhal Publishers. ISBN 1-57912-390-2.
- Bordman, Gerald (1978). American Musical Theatre: a Chronicle. New York: Oxford University Press. viii, 749 p.ISBN 0-19-502356-0
- Botto, Louis (2002-09-01). Robert Viagas (ed.). At This Theatre. Applause Books. ISBN 1-55783-566-7.
- Citron, Stephen (1991). The Musical, from the Inside Out. Chicago, Ill.: I.R. Dee. 336 p. ISBN 0-929587-79-0
- Ewen, David (1961). The Story of American Musical Theater. First ed. Philadelphia: Chilton. v, 208 p.
- Ganzl, Kurt. The Encyclopedia of Musical Theatre (3 Volumes). New York: Schirmer Books, 2001.
- Kantor, Michael; Laurence Maslon (2004). Broadway: the American musical. New York, New York: Bulfinch Press. ISBN 0-8212-2905-2.
- Mordden, Ethan (1999). Beautiful Mornin': The Broadway Musical in the 1940s. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-512851-6.
- Stempel, Larry. Showtime: A History of the Broadway Musical Theater (W.W. Norton, 2010) 826 pages; comprehensive history since the mid-19th century.
- Traubner, Richard. Operetta: A Theatrical History. Garden City, NY: Doubleday & Company, 1983
External links
![](http://178.128.105.246/cars-http-upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png)
- Internet Broadway Database – Cast and production lists, song lists and award lists
- Guidetomusicaltheatre.com – synopses, cast lists, song lists, etc.
- The Broadway Musical Home
- History of musicals (V&A museum website)
- Stacy's Musical Village - musical theatre site with information about musicals, cast albums and people
- Castalbumdb – Musical Cast Album Database
- Early musical theatre site with links to midi files and other information
- Synopses and character descriptions of most major musicals (StageAgent.com)