美西战争
美西战争(英語:Spanish-American War;西班牙語:Guerra hispano-estadounidense),發生於1898年4-8月,是一場美國與各獨立勢力共同對抗西班牙帝国的戰爭,戰爭於美國戰艦緬因號在古巴哈瓦那港沈沒後爆發。這場戰爭使美國成為加勒比海地區的主要勢力,並獲得西班牙在太平洋的領地。
美西戰爭[a] | |||||||||
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菲律宾革命、美洲非殖民化和古巴獨立戰爭的一部分 | |||||||||
![]() 馬尼拉灣海戰 | |||||||||
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参战方 | |||||||||
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指挥官与领导者 | |||||||||
兵力 | |||||||||
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總共:339,783人[9]
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伤亡与损失 | |||||||||
美國: 古巴和菲律賓:未知 |
西班牙: |
簡介
编辑1895年,古巴与菲律宾的獨立派發動革命,開始反抗西班牙統治,但官方進行殘酷的軍事鎮壓,又株連不少民眾,波及美國僑民。消息傳來,美國人相當憤慨,又加上美國政府覬覦加勒比海已久,情勢緊張。
美國政府派军舰緬因號至古巴保護僑民,卻在1898年2月15日於哈瓦那近海爆炸沉没。爆炸的威力巨大,几乎炸掉前侧三分之一的船体,其余的残骸迅速沉入海面。此事件造成266人死亡,其中绝大多数为士兵,爆炸时全舰军官几乎都在岸上,只有两名军官在舰上。对此次爆炸事件的起因及经过至今没有明确的调查结果。
1898年3月27日,美国通过驻西班牙公使,提出要求西班牙在古巴停火和取消集中营等条件。西班牙为了避免对美作战,于4月9日宣布休战。但美国国会发布决议:「承认古巴独立,要求西班牙軍隊撤出古巴。同时授予总统使用武力的权力,并宣告美国无意兼併古巴。」4月22日,美国海军封锁古巴港口。诺希维尔号军舰捕获到一艘西班牙商船。4月24日,西班牙向美国宣战,美国於次日宣战。
战争在古巴、波多黎各和菲律賓同时进行。开战后,美海军部副部长西奥多·罗斯福辞去职位,组建志愿军第一志愿骑兵团前往参战。
在古巴,美军打着「帮助古巴独立」的旗号计划从圣地亚哥港登陆。但西班牙军在此地部署了严密的防线,使美军无法登陆,只好封锁港口。6月10日,美军陆战队从关塔那摩湾强行登陆,但遭到西班牙军队的顽强阻击。6月底,防线被突破,美军成功登陆。西奥多·罗斯福率美國第一志願騎兵團(即;“莽骑兵”)节节获胜,击败了西班牙在古巴的陆军一部。7月1日,美军攻占圣地亚哥东北部和东部的据点埃尔卡纳和圣胡安,对圣地亚哥港形成包围之势,从而让战争的陆上形势对美国有利。7月3日,西班牙海军上将帕斯夸爾·塞韋拉指挥的加勒比海舰队试图冲破美军的封鎖,但在古巴圣地亚哥海战中被美军彻底摧毁。7月17日,圣地亚哥市向谢夫特将军投降。
在菲律賓,美国海军准将喬治·杜威的舰队在馬尼拉灣海戰中勝利,马尼拉港被封锁,西班牙失去在太平洋的制海权。8月13日,美军在菲律賓革命黨人的配合下占领菲律宾马尼拉。同时,从香港出发的美国舰队歼灭了驻守在菲律宾马尼拉港的西班牙舰队。
結果
编辑出於在古巴和菲律賓的失利,和其於兩地艦隊的毀滅,西班牙求和並開始展開談判。在英國領事愛德華·羅森·沃克因病去世後,美國海軍上將喬治·杜威請求比利時領事愛德華·安德烈代表美國與西班牙談判。[15]
在美國與西班牙於1898年8月12日簽訂停火協議後,雙方停止交戰。[16] 經過長達兩個月的僵局談判,正式的和約於1898年12月10日在法國巴黎簽訂,[17] 並於1899年2月6日得到美國參議院的核准。
美國在條約中獲得西班牙的殖民地菲律賓和波多黎各,古巴則成為了美國保護國。[17] 該條約於1899年4月11日開始對古巴具有強制力,而古巴當時僅能作為觀察員參加和平會議。古巴自1898年6月17日開始被美國控制,並置於美國軍事政府的管轄下。古巴在軍事政府宣布停止管轄後於1902年5月20日獨立。但美國對新政權提出諸多限制,包括禁止與其他國家結盟和保留合法介入的權力。美國簽訂事實永久管轄對關塔那摩灣海軍基地的租約。[18][19][20]
引注
编辑註腳
编辑- ^ Louis A. Pérez, The war of 1898: the United States and Cuba in history and historiography, UNC Press Books, 1998 [2015-10-31], ISBN 978-0807847428, (原始内容存档于2016-04-24)
- ^ Benjamin R. Beede, The War of 1898, and US interventions, 1898–1934: an encyclopedia, Taylor & Francis, 1994 [2015-10-31], ISBN 978-0824056247, (原始内容存档于2016-05-27)
- ^ Virginia Marie Bouvier, Whose America?: the war of 1898 and the battles to define the nation, Praeger, 2001 [2015-10-31], ISBN 978-0275967949, (原始内容存档于2016-05-14)
- ^ Thomas David Schoonover; Walter LaFeber, Uncle Sam's War of 1898 and the Origins of Globalization, University Press of Kentucky, 2005 [2015-10-31], ISBN 978-0813191225, (原始内容存档于2016-05-07)
- ^ Dyal, Carpenter & Thomas 1996,第21-22頁.
- ^ Clodfelter 2017,第256頁.
- ^ Clodfelter 2017,第308頁.
- ^ Karnow 1990,第115頁
- ^ Dyal, Carpenter & Thomas 1996,第20頁.
- ^ 10.0 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 Clodfelter 2017,第255頁.
- ^ 11.0 11.1 "America's Wars: Factsheet." 互联网档案馆的存檔,存档日期July 20, 2017,. US Department of Veteran Affairs. Office of Public Affairs. Washington DC. Published April 2017.
- ^ Marsh, Alan. "POWs in American History: A Synoposis" 互联网档案馆的存檔,存档日期August 6, 2017,.. National Park Service. 1998.
- ^ 13.0 13.1 13.2 Keenan 2001,第70頁.
- ^ Tucker 2009,第105頁.
- ^ Wolff 1961,第175頁
- ^ Protocol of Peace Embodying the Terms of a Basis for the Establishment of Peace Between the Two Countries, Washington, DC, 1898-08-12 [2007-10-17], (原始内容存档于2007-10-12)
- ^ 17.0 17.1 Treaty of Paris, 1898. [2009-12-31]. (原始内容存档于2015-05-23).
- ^ Congress, United States. Reports and Documents 2. 1947: 7 [2023-02-15]. (原始内容存档于2023-09-23) –通过Google Books (英语).
- ^ Congress, United States. Congressional Record: Proceedings and Debates of the 88th Congress, first session 109. Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office. 1963: 12259 [1873] [2023-02-15]. (原始内容存档于2023-09-23) (英语).
- ^ Strauss, Michael J. The Leasing of Guantanamo Bay. ABC-CLIO. 2009-05-14: 96–107, 174 [2023-02-15]. ISBN 978-0-313-37783-9. (原始内容存档于2023-09-23) (英语).
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