Wikipedista:El Barto/Pískoviště
Dějiny vesmíru
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Dějiny vesmíru sahají k velkému třesku před 13,7 miliardami roky[1] (pojem velký třesk je pouze symbolický, v počátku vesmíru nebyl žádný vzduch, kterým by se mohl šířit nějaký třaskavý zvuk).[1] Důvod, jímž byl velký třesk vyvolán, je současnými vědeckými metodami nepoznatelný. Moderní věda nedokáže ani vysvětlit, co se dělo prvních 10-43 sekund po velkém třesku, tento interval je znám jako tzv. Planckův čas po německém vědci Maxi Karlu Enstu Ludwigu Planckovi.
Vznikem a vývojem vesmíru se zabývá věda zvaná kosmologie.
První sekunda
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Podle obecné představy byl velký třesk náhlý gigantický výbuch v prostoru, ale tato představa je zcela zavádějící. Ve skutečnosti byl velký třesk jeden výbuch, při němž vznikl prostor, hmota i čas. Nemá smysl mluvit o čase před velkým třeskem, jelikož tehdy žádný čas nebyl. Stejně tak nemá cenu mluvit o místě, kde k tomu došlo, protože prostor také vznikl až při velkém třesku. Velký třesk navíc byl všude. S trochou nadsázky by se dalo říci, že centrální bod byl všude a zároveň nikde.[2] Počátek vesmíru byl neuvěřitelně malý (a tudíž hustý) a horký, takže přirozeně chladl. V následující milióntině vteřiny po uplynutí Planckova času (mezi 10-35 a 10-32 sekund) došlo k rychlé expanzi vesmíru, tzv. inflaci. Během ní se vesmír mnohamiliardkrát zvětšil. Po skončení inflace se rozpínání vesmíru zpomalilo na přibližně stejnou hodnotu, jakou pozorujeme dnes. Vesmír byl tehdy gigantickým rozpáleným oceánem fotonů, kvarků, elektronů, neutrin a jejich antičástic, každá z nich se pohybovala obrovskou rychlostí a nesla obrovské množství energie. Vesmír měl teplotu 1016 stupňů Celsia a velikost tenisového míčku. Nemohly dosud existovat atomy ani molekuly, alespoň ne v podobě, v jaké je známe dnes. Jsou to totiž složité struktury a ty v takovém horku neměly šanci na přežití.[3] Kvarky měly tak vysokou energii, že bylo nemožné je zachytit a spoutat do protonů, neutronů a elektronů. Stav hmoty, v němž se vesmír v tomto okamžiku nacházel, se nazývá kvark-gluonové plazma. Vesmír stále chladl, po uplynutí 1 mikrosekundy teplota klesla pod kritickou hranici 10 bilionů stupňů. Kvarky se už zpomalily natolik, že se dokázaly svou vlastní přitažlivostí zachytit. Když se k sobě přiblížily na kratší vzdálenost než 10-15 metrů donutila je jejich přitažlivá síla (silná interakce) ke spojení[4] - od té doby kvarky nemohou ve vesmíru existovat osamoceně.
Vesmírné spiknutí
[editovat | editovat zdroj]Vzhledem k velikosti vesmíru a jeho stáří nastává jev zvaný Vesmírné spiknutí: pokud jsou dvě galaxie, od sebe vzdálené alespoň 13,8 miliard světelných let a přesně mezi nimi (6,9 miliard světelných let) leží Země, lidé na ní mají možnost vidět obě galaxie, ale jedna druhou ne. Protože vesmíru je 13,7 miliard let, nemělo světlo dostatek času, aby přeletělo z jedné galaxie na druhou. Řeklo by se, že tento jev se poprvé objevil relativně nedávno, ale existoval i ve velmi raném vesmíru. Jinak řečeno, vesmír není, nebyl a nebude dost malý na to, aby světlo mohlo prolétnout všechny části a vyrovnalo teplotní rozdíly.
Vznik prvních hvězd
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První hvězdy se začaly formovat 380-700 milionů let po velkém třesku a tak skončila „doba temna“. Tyto hvězdy byly pravděpodobně velmi hmotné a všechny vážily tolik, co asi 150 Sluncí. Tlak gravitace rostl spolu s jejich hmotností a zahříval jejich jádra. Jaderné reakce, které tvoří jediný zdroj energie hvězdy, probíhaly velmi rychle a palivo v nich se velice rychle spotřebovalo. Některým z těchto hvězd došlo asi za milion let.
Před jejich vznikem byl kosmos jen mořem atomů (hlavně vodíku). Záření gigantických hvězd, které se kosmem šířilo, tyto atomy ionizovalo tím, že vyráželo elektrony z jejich obalů. Nakonec byla každá hvězda obklopena ionizovaným plynem, jehož velikost byla přímo úměrná velikosti hvězdy, kterou obaloval. Energie záření hvězdy mohla ovlivňovat pouze elektrony do určité vzdálenosti. Jelikož tyto hvězdy byly skutečně obrovské a měly velké množství energie, mohly kolem sebe mít obal o tloušťce i několik desítek tisíc světelných roků.[5]
Tyto bubliny se občas setkaly. Když k tomu došlo, byla všechna hmota uvnitř vystavena účinkům záření obou zúčastněných hvězd, díky dvojnásobné energii se ty bubliny začaly rozpínat mnohem rychleji a déle. Tak se zvýšila šance, že se bublina opět srazí s nějakou jinou. Za poměrně krátkou dobu se vesmír, kde hlavní složku tvořil H0 (neutrální vodík), stal místem, kde bylo 99% hmoty ionizováno. Chybná citace: Otvírací značka <ref>
je chybná nebo má špatný název
První supernovy
[editovat | editovat zdroj]Gama záblesky
[editovat | editovat zdroj].
Odkazy
[editovat | editovat zdroj]Reference
[editovat | editovat zdroj]- ↑ a b ARNOLD, Nick. Omračující věda všeho. Praha: Egmont, 2005. Dostupné online. ISBN 80-252-0220-8. S. 6-9.
- ↑ May, Moore, Lintott str. 28
- ↑ May, Moore, Lintott str. 34
- ↑ May, Moore, Lintott str. 35
- ↑ May, Moore, Lintott str. 60
Literatura
[editovat | editovat zdroj]- Brian May, Patrick Moore, Chris Lintott. BANG! Velký třesk a historie vesmíru. Překlad Jakub Rozehnal. Praha: Slovart, 2007. Dostupné online. ISBN 978-80-7209-963-4.
- Gilles Sparrow. Kosmos. Překlad PhDr. Jaromír Máša. Praha: Slovart, 2007. Dostupné online. ISBN 978-80-7209-931-3.
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Po velkém požáru Londýna v roce 1666 se muselo pristúpiť k celkovej rekonštrukcii centrálnej časti Londýna. Ujal sa jej matematik a architekt Christopher Wren. Podľa jeho modelu malo centrum mesta tvoriť šachovnicové usporiadanie ulíc skombinované s koncentrickými námestiami a niekoľkými diagonálnymi osami, no napokon sa tento jeho projekt realizoval len sčasti.
Svetské stavby
[editovat | editovat zdroj][[Súbor:Riddarhuset.jpg|thumb|left|Budova parlamentu, Štokholm, Švédsko]] V období baroka vznikalo množstvo svetských stavieb, ktoré mali demonštrovať moc panovníkov, šľachty, ale tiež bohatstvo mešťanov. Stavali sa najmä nájomné domy, mestské paláce pre šľachtu, vily, vidiecke sídla, zámky, ale tiež radnice alebo budovy kolégií a škôl. Stavby v tomto období tvorili jednoliaty celok - sokle, kostra a vonkajšie hrany boli silne zdôraznené, rovnako ako aj sochárska výzdoba, rámovanie dverí a okien, ale hlavne priečelia budov a budovy sa prispôsobovali uliciam, kanálom a námestiam.
V 17. storočí sa v Taliansku nestavali rozsiahle a odvážne rezidenčné zámky. V tejto oblasti prejavili veľkí talianski architekti svoje schopnosti len plánmi, ktoré vypracovali pre Louvre, aby tak konkurovali francúzskym kolegom. Vo Francúzsku sa hlavné časti budov v palácoch zvyčajne nachádzali v zadnom krídle, pričom predné časti budov boli nižšie. Jednotlivé časti domov mali svoje vlastné strechy v rôznych výškach, čím bolo zreteľné členenie stavby. V 17. storočí sa tieto budovy postupne zjednocujú a ich hlavná časť sa presúva dopredu, no prvky baroka tu možno vidieť už omnoho skôr. [[Súbor:Troja (garden facade).jpg|thumb|Trojský zámok, Praha, Česko]] Zámok Versailles ovplyvnil vývoj umenia v 17. storočí aj mimo Francúzska, ako vidno napr. na projekte kráľovského zámku Schönbrunn vo Viedni (Johann Fischer von Erlach, 1688) alebo na zámku Trója v Prahe (Jean-Baptiste Mathey, 1679/1691). Jedinou krajinou, v ktorej nevznikli v tomto období takmer žiadne pozoruhodné svetské stavby, bolo Španielsko, v ktorom protireformácia zrejme viedla k pretrvávajúcemu úpadku. O to pozoruhodnejšie sú niektoré stavby v severných protestantských krajinách, napr. v Nemecku (radnica v Augsburgu), Holandsku (radnica v Amsterdame, Mauritshuis v Haagu). Protestantský barok sa rozšíril i do Anglicka (napr. kráľovský komplex v Greenwichi) a Švédska (budova parlamentu Riddarhuset a kráľovský zámok v Štokholme).
Sakrálne stavby
[editovat | editovat zdroj][[Súbor:Katarinakyrkan View1.jpg|thumb|left|Kostol sv. Kataríny, Štokholm, Švédsko]] Rovnako ako svetská, aj sakrálna architektúra súvisela s renesančnými a manieristickými riešeniami stavieb. Za štandardný vzor bol považovaný kostol s ideálnym rámcom - s kombináciou sieňového kostola s kaplnkami a veľkolepou východnou časťou s transeptom, kupolou nad krížením a veľkým chórom. Pri kostoloch sa dbalo najmä na priečelia, no medzi predmety hlavného záujmu patrilo aj interiérové riešenie.
Medzi hlavné príklady takýchto stavieb patria v Taliansku chrám svätého Petra (Carlo Maderno, 1607/1626), kostol trinitárov San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane (Francesco Borromini) alebo interiér kostola sv. Vavrinca v Turíne (Guarino Guarini, 1668/1680). Vo Francúzsku boli kostoly spočiatku veľmi strohé, oveľa viac pripomínali renesanciu ako barok. Neskôr sa predsa prejavil i vplyv talianskych umelcov. Domáci architekti (Jacques Lemercier, Étienne Martellange) sa však neuspokojili s typickým talianskym vzorovým kostolom, ale sa vrátili k stavbám raného baroka a ďalej ich rozvíjali vlastnou cestou.
V Španielsku bola architektúra silno ovplyvnená všeobecným úpadkom, ktorí zapríčinila protireformácia, a tak bola ďaleko pozadu za ostatnými európskymi architektúrami. Pokým ostatné štáty brali renesančné dedičstvo za východiskový bod pre rozvoj nového umeleckého smeru, v Španielsku pri ňom zostali a ďalej ho nerozvíjali. Napriek tomu aj tu vznikli stavby ovplyvnené raným talianskym barokom.
V Nemecku sa vďaka pretrvávajúcej nemeckej gotizujúcej neskororenesančnej architektúre objavujú prvé barokové budovy až v 2. polovici 17. storočia, napr. kostol sv. Michala v Mníchove (Friedrich Sustris). V tomto období vznikol aj napr. kostol svätého Kajetána v Mníchove, ktorý postavili podľa talianskeho vzorového kostola. Na juhu krajiny bola architektúra pod výraznejším vplyvom severotalianskeho baroka. [[Súbor:Michaelskirche Muenchen-full.jpg|thumb|Kostol sv. Michala, Mníchov, Nemecko]] Nové barokové prvky sa neobjavili ani v protireformačnom Poľsku. Aj tu sa stavali najmä vzorové kostoly talianskeho typu alebo s centrálnym pôdorysom podľa starších talianskych kostolov. Hoci priestorové usporiadanie sa takmer nezmenilo, architekti si to vynahradili na neobyčajne plastickom členení múrov, ktoré vytvárali až teatrálne efekty, ako možno vidieť napr. na jezuitskom kostole v Poznani (1677/1701, Bartłomiej Nataniel Wąsowski). Pre flámske kostoly boli charakteristické bohaté reliéfy, ako napr. na jezuitskom kostole v Antverpách (1613). Vplyv baroka sa tu prejavuje nielen na priečeliach, ale i na reliéfnych ornamentoch.
Centrom novej viery a architektúry sa stalo Holandsko. Ako prvý vznikol kostol vo Willemstade (1581/1604), no najvýznamnejšou stavbou bol chrám v Charentone (1623, Salomon de Brosse). Protestantské sakrálne umenie čerpalo z práce s priestorom a svetlom, no iným spôsobom ako katolícke umenie: veriaci boli umiestnení v polkruhu tvárou k oltáru, čím sa vytvorila okrúhla scéna, zastrešená kupolou.
Oveľa ďalej zašlo sakrálne umenie v Anglicku, a to najmä vďaka stavbám Christophera Wrena. Po veľkom požiari v Londýne jeho budovy zmenili ráz mesta a vtisli mu barokový charakter. Ako príklad možno uviesť kostol sv. Štefana (St. Stephen Walbrook, 1672/1687). Ide o priestranný kostol s rovnobežníkovým pôdorysom, silne presvetlený, s baldachýnom a klenbou podopretou stĺpmi. Najvýznamnejším a najväčším protestantským kostolom v Európe je však katedrála sv. Pavla v Londýne, ktorej autor mal tiež najväčšie ambície zo všetkých staviteľov. Stala sa najvážnejším konkurentom chrámu sv. Petra v Ríme a taktiež chrámu Saint-Luis-des-Invalides (Dom invalidov) vo Francúzsku. V ostatných európskych prostestantských hlavných mestách sa stavali menej pompézne stavby, napr. štokholmský chrám svätej Kataríny (1656/1670, Jean de la Vallée).
Krajinná architektúra
[editovat | editovat zdroj][[Súbor:Orangerie.jpg|thumb|left|Záhrada a skleník pri zámku Versailles (Francúzsko)]] V období baroka sa veľmi dbalo aj na okolie budov a ich splynutie v priestore - krajinnú architektúru. Domy, paláce i chrámové stavby boli včlenené do okolia tak, aby čo najlepšie zapadli, a pre vytvorenie čo najlepšieho dojmu a súmernosti porušovali mnohé dovtedajšie princípy architektúry (napr. priečelie kostolov sa umiestňovalo na bok chrámovej lode, ak umiestnenie budovy nezodpovedalo symetrickému dojmu), a kde to možné nebolo, tam sa vytvárali aspoň falošné prvky (priečelia, stĺporadia), aby sa nepokazil panoramatický vzhľad budov, ulíc, no najmä námestí. Pri vonkajšej úprave budov vznikali zámocké záhrady a parky, ktoré vhodne upravovali rovinatý terén. Stavalo sa mnoho terás, altánkov, ale tiež veľkolepých vstupných schodíšť, a úpravám neušla ani voda, ktorá poslúžila na vytvorenie jazierok, fontán alebo vodných kaskád. Toto všetko spolu tvorilo organický celok, ktorý bol príjemný na pohľad a vzbudzoval dojem skutočnej veľkoleposti.
Architektúra v jednotlivých krajinách
[editovat | editovat zdroj]Talianska architektúra
[editovat | editovat zdroj][[Súbor:Saint Peter's Square from the dome.jpg|thumb|Námestie sv. Petra v (Rím, Taliansko)]]
Taliansko bolo kolískou nového umeleckého smeru, ktorý vychádzal z diel slávnych umelcov, ako boli napr. Michelangelo alebo Vignola. V tomto období bol dokončený chrám sv. Petra v Ríme, námestie pred týmto chrámom, a mnoho ďalších kostolov.
Raný barok, ktorý mal charakter klasicizujúceho baroka, sa postupom času zmenil na dynamický barok a jeho hlavné centrum sa koncom 17. storočia presunulo z Ríma na sever krajiny. Jeho vplyv sa prenášal ďalej do Európy, najmä na územie Rakúska, Bavorska, Česka a Slovenska.
Medzi najvplyvnejších talianskych architektov patria:
- Gian Lorenzo Bernini (1598 - 1680)
- Francesco Borromini (1599 - 1667)
- Guarino Guarini (1624 - 1683)
- Carlo Maderno (1556 - 1629)
- Jan Blažej Santini-Aichel (1677 - 1723)
Nemecká a rakúska architektúra
[editovat | editovat zdroj][[Súbor:Münster Erbdrostenhof.jpg|thumb|left|Kláštor Erbdrostenhof, Nemecko]] Tu sa centrom barokovej architektúry stali najmä Viedeň, Praha a Salzburg, ale taktiež juh Bavorska. Nový architektonický smer so sebou priniesli talianske rodiny staviteľov a architektov, z ktorých pochádzala aj väčšina prvých rakúskych a nemeckých staviteľov, a neskôr na ich práce nadviazali i domáci architekti.
V tomto období vznikajú také nádherné stavby, ako Schwarzenberský palác, cisársky zámok Schönbrunn, viedenský Belvedér, a mnohé ďalšie šľachtické sídla.
Tu môžeme medzi najvplyvnejších zaradiť týchto architektov:
- Giovanni Battista Alliprandi (1665 - 1720)
- Pavel Ignác Bayer (1656 - 1733)
- Octavio Broggio (1670 - 1742)
- Kilián Ignác Dientzenhofer (1689 - 1751)
- Kryštof Dientzenhofer (1655 - 1722)
- Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach (1656 - 1723)
- Joseph Emanuel Fischer von Erlach (1693 - 1742)
- Johann Lukas von Hildebrandt (1668 - 1745)
- Domenico Martinelli (1650 - 1718)
- Balthasar Neumann (1687 - 1753)
Francúzska architektúra
[editovat | editovat zdroj][[Súbor:Paris Louvre c1845.jpg|thumb|Louvre, Paríž, Francúzsko (1845)]]
Vo Francúzsku je barok obdobím kompromisov, čo sa prejavuje i na jeho umení. Bijú sa v ňom na jednej strane absolutistická moc cirkvi a kráľov, no na druhej strane sa silne vzmáhali aj mešťania a obchodníci, ktorých moc sa prejavila aj počas buržoáznej revolúcie v roku 1789. Za hlavné obdobie, v ktorom prevládal barokový štýl stavieb, sa považuje obdobie vlády Ľudovíta XIII., Ľudovíta XIV. a Ľudovíta XV. (1610 - 1774)
V tomto období vznikajú také významné stavby, ako je kráľovský palác Louvre, palácový komplex vo Versailles alebo Dom invalidov (Saint-Louis-des-Invalides).
Najvýznamnejší francúzski architekti baroka sú napríklad:
- Salomon de Brosse (1571 - 1626)
- François Mansart (1598 - 1666)
- Jules Hardouin Mansart (1646 - 1708)
- Charles Le Brun (1619 - 1690)
- André Le Nôtre (1613 - 1700)
- Louis Le Vau (1612 - 1670)
Holandská a flámska architektúra
[editovat | editovat zdroj][[Súbor:Dampaleis.jpg|thumb|left|Kráľovský palác v Amsterdame, Holandsko (17. storočie)]] Holandská baroková architektúra vychádzala z klasickej antickej architektúry a bola ovplyvňovaná skutočnosťou, že Holandsko bolo prvou republikou v severnej Európe. Miesto panovníckeho dvora tak určovali smer, akým sa architektúra a umenie všeobecne uberali, mešťania a obchodníci.
V tomto období tvorili v Holandsku najmä dvaja veľkí architekti - Jacob van Campen a Pieter Post. Ich tvorba sa vyznačovala hlavne používaním detailov prevzatých z iných európskych architektúr (napr. talianskej), ako boli obrovské pilastre, štítové strechy alebo strmé veže, ovplyvnené dielom anglického architekta Christophera Wrena.
Medzi budovy, ktoré boli postavené v tomto období, patria radnica v Amsterdame (1646) a Maastrichte (1658), ale tiež jedna z rezidencií kráľovskej rodiny - palác Huis ten Bosch v Haagu.
Najvýznamnejší holandskí architekti baroka sú napríklad: [[Súbor:DenHaag-Mauritshuis.JPG|thumb|Mauritshuis, Haag, Holandsko]]
- Jacob van Campen (1596 - 1657)
- Tielman van Gameren (1632 - 1706)
- Lieven de Key (1560 - 1627)
- Hendrick de Keyser (1565 - 1621)
- Thomas de Keyser (asi 1596 - 1667)
- Maurits Post (1645 - 1677)
- Pieter Post (1608 - 1669)
- Salomon de Bray (1597 - 1664)
- Jan van Santen (1550 - 1621)
- Daniël Stalpaert (1615 - 1676)
- Justus Vingboons (asi 1620 - asi 1698)
- Philips Vingboons (asi 1607 - 1678)
Anglická architektúra
[editovat | editovat zdroj][[Súbor:St Paul's - the final design.jpg|thumb|left|katedrála svätého Pavla, Londýn (1675 - 1711).]]
Za anglickú barokovú architektúru sa považujú stavby, ktoré vznikali približne medzi rokmi 1666 a 1713, nakoľko pred rokom 1666 neexistoval v Anglicku žiaden významný barokový architekt. Najväčšou udalosťou, ktorá sprevádzala toto obdobie architektúry, bol pravdepodobne Veľký požiar Londýna v roku 1666. Vďaka rozsiahlym škodám, ktoré oheň napáchal, sa mali možnosť prejaviť noví architekti, ovplyvnení barokovým umením, ktoré sa rozvíjalo v kontinentálnej časti Európy. Kontinentálne umenie však nekopírovali, len sa ním inšpirovali, takže v konečnom štádiu v Anglicku vznikali barokové stavby veľmi osobitého charakteru. Medzi najvýznamnejšie stavby, ktoré v tomto období vznikli, patrí katedrála svätého Pavla v Londýne (St. Paul's Cathedral, (1675-1711)), hrad Howard v Yorkshire alebo vidiecky dom Seaton Delaval Hall v Northumberlande (1718).
Najvýznamnejší anglickí architekti baroka sú napríklad:
- Thomas Archer (1668 - 1743)
- Nicholas Hawksmoor (asi 1661 - 1736)
- William Talman (1650 - 1719)
- sir John Vanbrugh (1664 - 1726)
- Christopher Wren (1632 - 1723)
Španielska architektúra
[editovat | editovat zdroj][[Súbor:Valladolid - Catedral.jpg|thumb|Univerzita Valladolid (1719).]] Španielska baroková architektúra bola silne ovplyvnená katolíckym náboženstvom, ktoré sa prejavovalo takmer na všetkých stavbách, či išlo o budovy cirkevné alebo svetské. Z tohto obdobia pochádzajú také stavby, ako sú katedrála zvestovania v Granade, katedrála Santiaga de Compostela v Galícii, priečelie univerzity Valladolid (1719) alebo katedrála v Jaén (Catedral de la Asunción de Jaén).
Najvýznamnejší španielski architekti baroka sú napríklad:
- Alonzo Cano (1601 - 1667)
- José Benito de Churriguera (1665 - 1725)
- Eufrasio López de Rojas (1628 - 1684)
- Ventura Rodríguez (1717 – 1785)
- Narciso Tomé (1690 - 1742)
Ruská architektúra
[editovat | editovat zdroj][[Súbor:Hermitage St. Petersburg Interior 20021009.jpg|thumb|left|Interiér Zimného paláca (1754 - 1762) v Petrohrade.]] V Rusku prechádzala baroková architektúra niekoľkými samostatnými obdobiami medzi koncom 16. storočia a prvou polovicou 18. storočia:
- prvá polovica 17. storočia - ranné obdobie baroka, tzv. „moskovský“ alebo „Naryškinovský barok“ - vyznačoval sa elegantnými bielymi dekoráciami na stenách z červených tehál, nachádzajúcich sa najmä na tradičných kostoloch. V tomto období vznikla napr. Donský kláštor v Moskve (založený 1591) alebo Novodievčí kláštor v Moskve (založený 1524);
- druhá polovica 17. storočia a začiatok 18. storočia - vrcholné obdobie baroka, tzv. "petrovský barok" - bol ovplyvnený najmä ruským cárom Petrom I. Veľkým, ktorý v tomto období založil mesto Petrohrad. V tomto období sa ruská architektúra drasticky odklonila od byzantského umenia, ktoré dovtedy prevládalo v umeleckej tvorbe. Vznikli také stavby, ako napr. katedrála sv. Petra a Pavla v Petrohrade (1712 - 1733), Menšikovský palác (1710 - 1711) alebo Dvanásť kolégií (1722 - 1744);
- prvá polovica 18. storočia - neskoré obdobie baroka, tzv. „rastrelliho barok“ - toto obdobie bolo vrcholom extravagantnosti v plánovaní a prevedení stavieb. Názov dostalo podľa najvýznamnejšieho architekta pôsobiaceho v Rusku, Francesca Bartolomea Rastrelliho, ktorý bol v roku 1730 vymenovaný za staršieho dvorného architekta a pripisujú sa mu mnohé veľké stavby 18. storočia v Rusku. Patrí medzi ne napr. Zimný palác v Petrohrade (1754 - 1762), Mariánsky palác v Kyjeve (1752) alebo kostol sv. Andreja v Kyjeve (1749 - 1754).
[[Súbor:Catherine Palace.jpg|thumb|Katarínsky palác, Petrohrad, Rusko.]] Medzi najvýznamnejších architektov ruského baroka patria napríklad:
- Jurij Matvejevič Felten (1730 — 1801)
- Alexander Filipovič Kokorinov (1726 - 1772)
- Andrej Vasilievič Kvasov (1720 - 1770)
- Ivan Fiodorovič Mičurin (1700 – 1763)
- Francesco Bartolomeo Rastrelli (1700 - 1771)
- Antonio Rinaldi (1710 - 1794)
- Andreas Schlüter (1664 - 1714)
- Domenico Trezzini (asi 1670 - 1734)
- Dmitrij Vasilievič Uchtomskij (1719 – 1774)
- Michail Grigorievič Zemcov (1688 – 1743)
Poľská architektúra
[editovat | editovat zdroj][[Súbor:Rzeszów pałacyk p2.jpg|thumb|left|Rzeszówsky palác (1682)]] Poľská baroková architektúra bola poznamenaná ako vytvorením únie medzi Poľskom a Litvou, tak i súperením bohatých mešťanov a šľachty s kráľom. Celkový vývoj architektúry ovplyvnila tiež švédska invázia a okupácia časti krajiny v rokoch 1655 - 1660. Medzi najvýznamnejšie poľské barokové stavby patrí Kráľovský palác vo Varšave (zrekonštruovaný v rokoch 1596 - 1619), Rzeszówsky palác (1682) alebo predmestský palác Villa Regia, ktorý postavil Giovanni Battista Trevano pre poľského kráľa Vladislava IV. Vasu v rokoch 1637 - 1641. Poľská šľachta zas dala postaviť krásne sídla po celej krajine, napr. hrad Krzyżtopór v dedine Ujazd na juhu Poľska alebo hrad v Nowom Wiśnicze.
Medzi najvýznamnejších architektov poľského baroka patria napríklad:
- Joachim Daniel von Jauch (1688 - 1754)
- Domenico Merlini (1730 - 1797)
- Giovanni Battista Trevano (? - 1644)
- Bartłomiej Nataniel Wąsowski (1617 - 1687)
- Jan Zaor (17. storočie)
- Stanisław Zawadzki (1743 – 1806)
Uhorská architektúra
[editovat | editovat zdroj][[Súbor:Budai palota 1930.jpg|thumb|left|Kráľovský palác v Budíne (Budapešť) (1749 - 1769)]] Uhorská architektúra bola ovplyvňovaná talianskym barokom, ktorý dostal možnosť sa naplno prejaviť vďaka tureckým nájazdom. Po zdevastovaní častí krajiny bolo treba postaviť nové cirkevné i svetské stavby, ktoré sa snažili prispôsobiť novej móde. Možno to vidieť napr. na jednej z prvých uhorských barokových stavieb - jezuitskom kostole v Trnave, ktorý v rokoch 1629 - 1637 postavil architekt Pietro Spazzo podľa talianskeho kostola na Piazza del Gesù v Ríme. Medzi ďalšie známe stavby patria napr. jezuitské kostoly v Košiciach (1671 - 1684), Győri (1634 - 1641) alebo Székesfehérváre (1745 - 1751); zo svetských stavieb sú to napr. kráľovský palác v Budíne (1749 - 1769), Grassalkovičov palác v Gödöllő alebo Esterházyho palác vo Fertőde. [[Súbor:Fertod, Palais Esterhazy de nuit.jpg|thumb|Esterházyho palác, Fertőd, Maďarsko.]] Medzi najvýznamnejších architektov barokového obdobia v Uhorsku patria:
- Jakab Fellner (1722 - 1780)
- Menyhért Hefele (1716 - 1794)
- József Jung (1734 – 1808)
- András Mayerhoffer (1690 - 1771)
- Ignác Oraschek (? - 1767)
- Franz Anton Pilgram (1699 - 1761)
Škandinávska architektúra
[editovat | editovat zdroj][[Súbor:Copenhagen amalienborg seen from opera house.jpg|thumb|left|Amalienborg, zimné sídlo dánskych kráľov.]] Švédsku barokovú architektúru ovplyvnil najmä dvorný architekt Nicodemus Tessin starší a jeho syn Nicodemus Tessin mladší. Ich práca sa vyznačovala zmiešaním francúzskych barokových prvkov s talianskou barokovou architektúrou a osobitými severskými prvkami, ako sú napr. valbové strechy. Z tohoto obdobia pochádza napr. Štokholmský palác (1697 - 1760) alebo katedrála v Kalmare (1660 - 1700). V Dánsku pôsobil významný domáci architekt Nicolai Eigtved, ktorý sa preslávil ako hlavný architekt kráľovského sídla Christiansborg v Kodani, rovnako ako aj zimného sídla dánskej kráľovskej rodiny - paláca Amalienborg.
Medzi najvýznamnejších architektov barokového obdobia v Škandinávii patria:
- Nicolai Eigtved (1701 - 1754)
- Elias David Häusser (1687 -1745)
- Nicodemus Tessin starší (1615 - 1681)
- Nicodemus Tessin mladší (1654 - 1728)
Literatúra
[editovat | editovat zdroj][[Súbor:Dubrovitsy church.jpg|thumb|Barokový kostol v Podolsku, neďaleko Moskvy, Rusko.]]
- Jaroslav Herrout: Staletí kolem nás. Praha: Orbis, 1970.
- Jaroslava Staňková - Josef Pechar: Tisíciletý vývoj architektury. Praha: Státní nakladatelství technické literatury, 1979.
- Robert Cumming: Umenie. Bratislava: Slovart, 2007.
- Svetové dejiny umenia. Praha: Cesty, 1996.
Související články
[editovat | editovat zdroj]Obrázky, zvuky či videa k tématu El Barto/Pískoviště na Wikimedia Commons
Smrt a Pohřeb Ronalda Reagana
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40. Prezident Spojených států amerických, Ronald Wilson Reagan, zemřel 5. června 2004 ráno, na zápal plic ve svém domě v Bel-Air. Po smrti jej převezli v rakvi z Bel-Air v Kalifornie do pohřebního ústavu. Dne 7. června, byl přepraven pohřebním vozem do Ronald Reagan Presidential Library v Simi Valley, Kalifornie, Poté byl letecky převezen do Washingtonu. 9. června byla rakev na 34 hodin vystavena v Kapitolu. 11. června proběhl ve Washington National Cathedral pohřební obřad, prezident George W. Bush ten den vyhlásil státní smutek. Později téhož dne, po bohoslužbě, byla rakec převezena zpět do Kalifornie na pohřeb v Reagan Presidential Library.
Death
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On the morning of June 5, 2004. there were reports indicating that former President Ronald Reagan's health had significantly deteriorated, following ten years of Alzheimer's disease.[1] According to Reagan's daughter, Patti Davis, "At the last moment, when his breathing told us this was it, he opened his eyes and looked straight at my mother. Eyes that hadn't opened for days did, and they weren't chalky or vague. They were clear and blue and full of love. If a death can be lovely, his was."[2] His wife, former First Lady Nancy Reagan told him that the moment was "the greatest gift you could have given me."[2] President Reagan died of pneumonia at his home at 13:09 PDT (20:09 UTC, or 16:09 EDT). At his side were his wife and two of his children, Ron and Patti.[3] His eldest surviving child, Michael, was with his father the day before.
A hearse transported the body down Sunset Boulevard in Los Angeles to the Gates, Kingsley and Gates Funeral Home in Santa Monica.[4] Following his death, Nancy Reagan released a statement through the office of her husband, saying:
„ | Moje rodina a já bych chtěla říct, že prezident Ronald Reagan zemřel po 10 letech Alzheimerovy choroby ve věku 93 let. Vážíme si každé modlitby.[5] | “ |
Declarations and tributes
[editovat | editovat zdroj]President George W. Bush was in Paris when Reagan died and acknowledged the death in a press conference.[6] President Bush said this on June 5, 2004:
„ | This is a sad hour in the life of America. A great American life has come to an end. I have just spoken to Nancy Reagan. On behalf of our whole nation, Laura and I offered her and the Reagan family our prayers and our condolences.
Ronald Reagan won America's respect with his greatness, and won its love with his goodness. He had the confidence that comes with conviction, the strength that comes with character, the grace that comes with humility, and the humor that comes with wisdom. He leaves behind a nation he restored and a world he helped save. During the years of President Reagan, America laid to rest an era of division and self-doubt. And because of his leadership, the world laid to rest an era of fear and tyranny. Now, in laying our leader to rest, we say thank you. He always told us that for America, the best was yet to come. We comfort ourselves in the knowledge that this is true for him, too. His work is done, and now a shining city awaits him. May God bless Ronald Reagan.[7] |
“ |
American flags at the White House, across the United States, and around the world over official U.S. installations and operating locations, were ordered flown at half-staff for 30 days in a presidential proclamation by President Bush.[8][9] In the announcement of Reagan's death, Bush also declared June 11 a National Day of Mourning.[8]
Some of the early international tributes to Reagan included those of Queen Elizabeth II, former British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher, British Prime Minister Tony Blair, former Canadian Prime Minister Brian Mulroney, Canadian Prime Minister Paul Martin, and French President Jacques Chirac.[10] Martin advised Governor General Adrienne Clarkson to order all flags across Canada and at all Canadian diplomatic missions in the United States flown to half-staff on the 11th as well, in sympathy with the U.S.'s National Day of Mourning.
People marked Reagan's death by leaving tributes and condolences at U.S. embassies and consulates overseas, as well as at locales around the country significant to Reagan's life, including his presidential library, his birthplace in Tampico, Illinois, the funeral home where his body was taken after he died, and the Tau Kappa Epsilon fraternity house in Eureka, Illinois.
Massachusetts Senator John Kerry, the Democratic nominee for president, suspended his campaign until after the funeral out of respect for Reagan.
Funeral events
[editovat | editovat zdroj]Reagan Library
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On June 7, Reagan's body was removed from the funeral home and driven in a 20-mile-per-hour[4] motorcade, by hearse, to the Ronald Reagan Presidential Library in Simi Valley.[11]
Reagan's casket, a Marsellus Masterpiece model,[12] was carried by a military honor guard representing all branches of the United States Armed Forces[13] into the lobby of the library to lie in repose.[14] There, a brief family service was conducted by the Rev. Dr. Michael H. Wenning, former pastor of Bel Air Presbyterian Church, where Reagan worshipped.[15] When the prayer service concluded, Nancy Reagan and her family approached the casket, where Mrs. Reagan laid her head on it.[15] After the family left, the doors of the presidential library opened, and the public began filing in at a rate of 2,000 an hour throughout the night. In all, about 108,000 people visited the presidential library to see the casket.[16]
Departure to Washington
[editovat | editovat zdroj]On June 9, Reagan's casket was removed from the presidential library and driven in a motorcade to NAS Point Mugu in Ventura, California;[17] it was the same airfield Reagan flew into and out of during his presidency when visiting his California ranch.[18] SAM 28000, one of the two Boeing 747-200s, which usually serves the president as Air Force One, arrived to transport the casket to Washington. Thousands of people gathered to witness the plane's departure. Just before she boarded the VC-25A Presidential Aircraft, Nancy Reagan waved to the crowd with her military escort at her side. The plane lifted off at about 9:40 AM PST.[19]
Events in Washington
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In Washington, D.C., members of Congress, and much of the public, paid tribute to Reagan immediately after his death and throughout his funeral.
Funeral procession
[editovat | editovat zdroj]Events in the capital began when Reagan's casket arrived at Andrews Air Force Base, Maryland. It was removed from the plane, driven by hearse in a procession through the Maryland and Virginia suburbs and the nation's capital, across the Memorial Bridge, and onto Constitution Avenue.[20]
Just before the plane arrived at Andrews, the Capitol building was evacuated for a brief period, for a plane carrying Kentucky Governor Ernie Fletcher was off course and created a scare by entering restricted airspace; the incident was attributed to radio problems onboard the plane and did not affect funeral events.[21]
Near the Ellipse, and within sight of the White House, the hearse halted and Reagan's body was transferred to a horse-drawn caisson for the procession down Constitution Avenue to Capitol Hill.[20] Nancy Reagan stepped out of her limousine to witness the body's transfer; she was met with a warm greeting, including applause.[20] The cortege began the 45 minute journey just after 6:00 PM EST, with the Reagan family following in limousines.[20] Military units escorted the caisson as it made its way to the sounds of muffled drums. Behind the caisson was a riderless horse named Sergeant York, carrying Reagan's riding boots reversed in the stirrups.[22] The caisson paused at 4th street and Constitution Avenue, where 21 Air Force F-15s flew over in missing man formation.
Capitol Hill
[editovat | editovat zdroj]The caisson stopped when it arrived at Capitol Hill; military units removed it, and Hail to the Chief was played amidst a 21-gun salute.[23][24] The casket was carried up the west front steps of the Capitol, mainly because Reagan was first inaugurated there and he wanted to face west, toward California.[24] Two teams of military body bearers carried the coffin up the steps of the Capitol to Battle Hymn of the Republic.[23][24]
When the casket reached the top of the steps, Nancy Reagan and her military escort met it. As the casket passed them, Mrs. Reagan momentarily pulled away from her escort, reached out, and touched the casket.[24] They followed it inside to the rotunda.
The casket was placed under the rotunda, where it lay in state on Abraham Lincoln's catafalque.[25] An evening memorial service then took place, with dignitaries primarily composed of Congressional members, members of the United States Supreme Court, and the diplomatic corps;[26] the Reverend Daniel Coughlin, Chaplain of the House of Representatives, gave the invocation.[27] Eulogies were then delivered by Senate President pro tempore Ted Stevens, House Speaker Dennis Hastert, and Vice President Dick Cheney.[27]
After the eulogies, the three speakers each laid a wreath at the casket, and Senate Chaplain, the Reverend Barry Black, gave the benediction.[27] Cheney escorted Mrs. Reagan to the casket, where she said her goodbyes.[27] The dignitaries in the room paid their respects during the next half hour. In a rare instance, the doors of the Capitol were then opened to the public, who stood in lines stretching many blocks to view the casket.[25]
Public viewing
[editovat | editovat zdroj]The general public stood in long lines waiting for a turn to pay their respects to the president. People passed by the casket at a rate of about 5,000 per hour (83.3 per minute resp. 1.4 per second) and the wait time was about three hours. In all, 104,684 paid their respects when Reagan lay in state.[28][29] The Washington Metro subway set a then daily record in ridership of 850,636 as a result.[30]
After returning to Washington following the G-8 Summit, President George W. Bush and First Lady Laura Bush visited the rotunda to pay their respects.[31] Many world leaders did the same, including interim Iraqi President Ghazi al-Yawer, former Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev, former Polish president Lech Wałęsa, and former British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher.[31]
While Reagan's casket lay in state, Nancy Reagan and her family took up temporary residence in Blair House, the official residence of guests of the President of the United States.[31] There, she was greeted by additional dignitaries and public figures. During a visit from Margaret Thatcher, the former Prime Minister wrote in the Blair House condolence book, "To Ronnie, Well done, thou good and faithful servant."[31]
State funeral service
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After thirty-four hours of lying in state, the doors of the Capitol were closed to the public and Nancy Reagan was escorted in, where she had a moment alone with the casket. A military honor guard entered and carried it down the west steps of the Capitol to a 21-gun salute where Mrs. Reagan, holding her hand over her heart, met it.[32] After it was placed in a hearse, the motorcade departed on the five mile-trip to the Washington National Cathedral, where the state funeral service was to be held; crowds lined the route of the cortege as the hearse made its way.[32]
Dignitaries
[editovat | editovat zdroj]About 4,000 people gathered at the cathedral for the service, including President and Mrs. Bush, former president George H. W. and Barbara Bush, Gerald and Betty Ford, Jimmy and Rosalynn Carter, and Bill and Hillary Clinton. Members of Congress and past and present governors were also present.[33]
Foreign dignitaries attended as well, coming from 165 nations. The dignitaries included 36 past and present heads of state and government, and U.N. Secretary General Kofi Annan. Leading the dignitaries were Mikhail Gorbachev, Margaret Thatcher, Brian and Mila Mulroney, and Prince Charles (representing Queen Elizabeth II and the United Kingdom).[34] Other world leaders included U.K. Prime Minister Tony Blair and his wife Cherie, German Chancellor Gerhard Schröder, former Japanese Prime Minister Yasuhiro Nakasone, Italian Prime Minister Silvio Berlusconi, Jordan's King Abdullah, as well as interim presidents Hamid Karzai of Afghanistan and Ghazi al-Yawer of Iraq.[34] Blair, Schröder, Berlusconi, Karzai, King Abdullah, and al-Yawer had been at the G-8 Summit in Sea Island, Georgia, and later decided to extend their stay in the U.S. to attend the funeral. For Karzai, the funeral was part of his week-long visit to the U.S. and it was the beginning of his visit to Washington. He scrapped a visit to the West Coast to visit the Afghan community there to attend the funeral.
Cathedral events
[editovat | editovat zdroj]The motorcade arrived at the Cathedral and Reagan's casket was removed. The bearers carrying it paused on the Cathedral steps, and an opening prayer was given by Bishop John Bryson Chane, Dean of the Washington National Cathedral.[35] The casket was then carried down the aisle; the Reagan family followed and Mrs. Reagan was escorted to her seat by President Bush. Rabbi Harold Kushner and Supreme Court Associate Justice Sandra Day O'Connor (the first female Supreme Court justice, whom Reagan appointed), then each gave a reading, which preceded the eulogies.[35] The choir then sang hymns—"Faire is the Heaven"; "Bring Us, O Lord"; "And I saw a New Heaven"[36]—before former Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher delivered the first eulogy. In view of her failing mental faculties following several small strokes, the message had been pre-recorded several months earlier and was broadcast throughout the Cathedral via plasma television screens. During the speech, Thatcher said, "We have lost a great president, a great American and a great man, and I have lost a dear friend."[35]
Following Baroness Thatcher's eulogy, former Canadian Prime Minister Brian Mulroney delivered one. Mulroney ended with, "In the presence of his beloved and indispensable Nancy, his children, his family, his friends and all of the American people that he so deeply revered, I say au revoir today to a gifted leader and historic president and a gracious human being."[35]
Former President George H. W. Bush then spoke, his voice breaking at one point when describing Reagan;[35] Bush had been Reagan's Vice President from 1981 to 1989. His son, President George W. Bush, was the last to give a eulogy, saying in part, "Ronald Reagan belongs to the ages now, but we preferred it when he belonged to us... In his last years he saw through a glass darkly. Now he sees his Savior face to face. And we look for that fine day when we will see him again, all weariness gone, clear of mind, strong and sure and smiling again, and the sorrow of this parting gone forever. "[35]
The choir then partook in singing "Battle Hymn of the Republic" and Theodore Cardinal McCarrick, Archbishop of Washington, delivered a Bible reading from the Gospel of Matthew.[35] The celebrant, former Missouri Senator the Reverend John C. Danforth, delivered the homily[37] and Irish tenor Ronan Tynan sang songs such as "Ave Maria" and "Amazing Grace" at the request of Nancy Reagan.[32] The Reverend Ted Eastman, former Bishop of Maryland, delivered the benediction, flanked by Reverend Danforth and Reverend Chane.
Interment at the Reagan Library
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![](http://178.128.105.246/content-http-upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/US_Navy_040611-N-1450G-059_Former_First_Lady_Nancy_Reagan_holds_onto_the_flag_that_covered_former_President_Ronald_Reagan%27s_casket_as_she_departs.jpg/175px-US_Navy_040611-N-1450G-059_Former_First_Lady_Nancy_Reagan_holds_onto_the_flag_that_covered_former_President_Ronald_Reagan%27s_casket_as_she_departs.jpg)
Return to California
[editovat | editovat zdroj]After the service, the casket was removed from the cathedral and driven to Andrews Air Force Base for the return to California, passing crowds along its route.[38] The family and close friends boarded the VC 25-A Presidential Aircraft,[39] and as she had done previously, Nancy Reagan waved farewell to the crowds just prior to boarding the plane.
About five hours after the aircraft departed Andrews, it touched down at Naval Base Ventura County, Point Mugu, California. The public, including sailors from the USS Ronald Reagan, was there to witness the plane's arrival.[40] Reagan's body was driven in a large motorcade on one final trip though the streets of southern California.[40] As they had done throughout the week, crowds gathered along the motorcade route on its {{convert|25}}
journey to Reagan's burial place, his presidential library in Simi Valley.[40]
Burial service and interment
[editovat | editovat zdroj]The service drew 700 invited guests, including former Reagan administration officials such as George Shultz, and noted dignitaries; Margaret Thatcher, who travelled on the plane from Washington, sat next to California Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger[41] and his wife Maria Shriver; former California Governor Pete Wilson was in attendance, as well as former Los Angeles Mayor Richard Riordan.[39] Hollywood actors and other celebrities were also attended, including Kirk Douglas, Charlton Heston, Mickey Rooney, Dolores Hope (widow of Bob Hope), Merv Griffin, Tommy Lasorda, Wayne Gretzky, Scott Baio, Bo Derek, Tom Selleck, Pat Sajak, Wayne Newton, and the Sinatra family.[41][42] The three surviving Reagan children, Michael, Patti, and Ron, gave final eulogies at the interment ceremony.[43]
Eulogies finished, and the service over, the Air Force Band of the Golden West played four "ruffles and flourishes," and the U.S. Army Chorus sang The Star-Spangled Banner. Bagpiper Eric Rigler played "Amazing Grace" as the casket was moved to its grave site and placed on a plinth.[39] There, burial rites were given, followed by a last 21-gun salute;[41] members of the armed services fired three volleys and a bugler played Taps.[41] At that time, Four Navy F/A-18 fighter jets flew over in missing man formation,[41][39] and the flag that flew over the Capitol during President Reagan's 1981 inauguration was folded and presented to Nancy Reagan by Captain James Symonds, the commanding officer of the USS Ronald Reagan.[40]
After Nancy Reagan accepted the flag, she approached the casket and spent several minutes patting and stroking it.[39] She laid her head down on the casket, before breaking down and crying; The Washington Post described Mrs. Reagan as having been "stoic through nearly a week of somber rituals" but she "surrendered to her grief after being handed the flag that had covered her husband's coffin."[38] While she cried, she kissed the casket and said "I love you".[41] Her children surrounded her, and attempted to console her.[41] Mrs. Reagan then walked away with her military escort, clutching the folded flag. The military band began to play, as the Reagan children said their goodbyes. Funeral attendees had an opportunity to file past the coffin.
The casket was lowered into the tomb and closed approximately before 3:00 AM PDT; the exterior of the horseshoe shaped monument is inscribed with a quote Ronald Reagan delivered in 1991:[41]
„ | I know in my heart that man is good, that what is right will always eventually triumph, and there is purpose and worth to each and every life.[44] | “ |
Music
[editovat | editovat zdroj]Music played during the week-long events included four ruffles and flourishes, "Hail to the Chief," "My Country 'Tis of Thee," "The Battle Hymn of the Republic," "Amazing Grace," "Eternal Father, Strong to Save" (also known as "The Navy Hymn"), "God of Our Fathers," "Mansions of the Lord," "God Bless America," "America the Beautiful," and Going Home.[36][39][41]
Security measures
[editovat | editovat zdroj]The state funeral marked the first time that Washington hosted a major event since September 11, 2001.[45] As a result, the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) designated the state funeral a National Special Security Event (NSSE).[46] Special precautions were taken because many of the events were open to the public and there were multiple protectees.[46] As means of assisting the motorcade, many streets were temporarily blocked off by law enforcement.[46]
However, DHS was handling another NSSE at the same time: the G-8 Summit in Sea Island, Georgia.
Public and media comments
[editovat | editovat zdroj]The majority of those commemorating Reagan were supporters of his, although not all held the 40th president in extremely high regard. In one noted example, Paul Mays, a retired engineer who never thought much of Reagan's politics, witnessed the motorcade leave the tarmac at Andrews Air Force Base; he commented "This is history".[47] Frank Dubois, an American University professor, also was there for the motorcade, though of the laudatory praise he remarked, "[Reagan] hurt the environment; there was double-digit inflation. I just don't get it."[47]
The majority of media coverage of the event was deferential. Most major news organizations broadcast the various events live multiple times; during the week, the cable channel C-SPAN broadcasted uninterrupted coverage of the funeral ceremonies. A few complained, however, that the television coverage was excessive and preempted coverage of other events. CBS News anchor Dan Rather was quoted as saying: "Even though everybody is respectful and wants to pay homage to the president, life does go on. There is other news, like the reality of Iraq. It got very short shrift this weekend."[48]
Reagan's obituaries also included a few criticisms. Richard Goldstein of The Village Voice criticized the funeral for its careful orchestration, writing, "Because the networks had so long to plan for this production... this was the most precisely mounted news event in modern times. Each gesture was minutely choreographed, every tear strategically placed."[49]
Additionally, some media outlets were criticized for lionizing Reagan without paying equal attention to more controversial decisions made during his administration. Thomas Kunkel, dean of the University of Maryland, College Park's journalism college, wrote in American Journalism Review magazine that the coverage "would have you believe that Reagan was a cross between Abe Lincoln and Mother Teresa, with an overlay of Mister Rogers."[50] Howard Kurtz, The Washington Post's media columnist, said Reagan was "a far more controversial figure in his time than the largely gushing obits on television would suggest."[51] The Nation ran a series of articles about the many controversies of his presidency.
See also
[editovat | editovat zdroj]References
[editovat | editovat zdroj]![](http://178.128.105.246/content-http-upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Reagan%27sGraveApril07-2.jpg/220px-Reagan%27sGraveApril07-2.jpg)
- ↑ Buncombe, Andrew. Relatives gather as Reagan's health fades. The Independent on Sunday. 2004-06-06. Dostupné online [cit. 2008-02-03].
- ↑ a b Reagans shared one last moment. www.cnn.com. CNN, June 8, 2004. Dostupné online [cit. 2008-06-12].
- ↑ Ronald Reagan: The 'Great Communicator'. www.cnn.com. June 6, 2004. Dostupné online [cit. 2008-03-09].
- ↑ a b Guthrie, Julian. For Reagan mortician, the 'honor of a lifetime'. The San Francisco Chronicle. June 9, 2004. Dostupné online [cit. 2008-03-09].
- ↑ Associated Press. Nancy Reagan statement on Reagan's death. The Baltimore Sun. 2004-06-05. Dostupné online [cit. 2008-02-03].
- ↑ President Bush praises Reagan: 'His work is done'. www.cnn.com. CNN, 2004-06-08. Dostupné online [cit. 2008-02-03].
- ↑ President's Remarks on the Passing of President Ronald Reagan [online]. June 6, 2004 [cit. 2008-03-09]. Dostupné online.
- ↑ a b George W. Bush, "Announcing the death of Ronald Reagan". Press release, Office of the Press Secretary, June 6, 2004.
- ↑ George W. Bush, "Returning the Flag of the United States to Full-Staff" Press release, Office of the Press Secretary, July 2, 2004.
- ↑ Ronald Reagan: Tributes. news.bbc.co.uk. BBC, 2004-06-06. Dostupné online [cit. 2008-02-03].
- ↑ "Thousands pay respect to Reagan in California". CTV News, June 8, 2004. Retrieved on 2008-03-09
- ↑ Cullen, Lisa Takeuchi. Opening the Box. Time. August 6, 2006. Dostupné online [cit. 2008-03-09].
- ↑ Ronald Reagan laid to rest in California. www.cbc.ca. CBC News, June 12, 2004. Dostupné online [cit. 2008-03-09].
- ↑ The Office of Ronald Reagan: Outline of Funeral Events in Honor of Ronald Wilson Reagan, tisková zpráva, [cit. 2008-03-09], Dostupné on-line.
- ↑ a b Mourners gather for first of farewells. Associated Press. The St. Petersburg Times, June 8, 2004. Dostupné online [cit. 2008-03-09].
- ↑ 100,000 file past Reagan's casket. www.cnn.com. CNN, June 9, 2004. Dostupné online [cit. 2008-04-20].
- ↑ Wilson, Jeff. Plane carrying Reagan's casket leaves for Washington for his state funeral. The Associated Press. High Beam Research, Inc, June 9, 2004. Dostupné online [cit. 2008-04-20].
- ↑ Roberts, Steven V. Reagan's Helicopter In a Near-Collision With a Small Plane. The New York Times. August 14, 1987. Dostupné online [cit. 2008-04-20].
- ↑ Reagan ceremonies to shift to nation's capital. USA Today. June 10, 2004. Dostupné online [cit. 2008-04-20].
- ↑ a b c d Ryan, Dennis. The line of march, celebrating a president's life. Pentagram Newspaper, Fort Myer. Military District of Washington, June 11, 2004. Dostupné online [cit. 2008-04-20].
- ↑ Capitol Evacuated Before Reagan Procession. edition.cnn.com. CNN, June 9, 2004. Dostupné online [cit. 2008-04-20].
- ↑ Faulkner, Claire A. Arlington's Ceremonial Horses and Funerals at the White House [online]. [cit. 2008-04-20]. Dostupné online.
- ↑ a b Formal funeral procession to U.S. Capitol. Casket is transferred from hearse to a horse-drawn caisson at 16th St. & Constitution Ave., NW.. Washington, D.C.: C-SPAN [javascript:playClip(clip20) Dostupné online].
- ↑ a b c d Davis, Julie Hirschfield. A nation pays its respects. The Baltimore Sun. Fox News, Channel 59 Inndianapolis, June 10, 2004. Dostupné online [cit. 2008-05-03].
- ↑ a b Thousands pay tribute to Reagan. www.cnn.com. June 11, 2004. Dostupné online [cit. 2008-04-20].
- ↑ Loughlin, Sean. Reagan's body lies in state. www.cnn.com. CNN, June 10, 2004. Dostupné online [cit. 2008-05-03].
- ↑ a b c d Dewar, Helen and Charles Babington. GOP Leaders Eulogize The 40th President. The Washington Post. June 10, 2004. Dostupné online [cit. 2008-05-03].
- ↑ Lak, Daniel. "Reagan lies in state at Capitol". BBC, June 11, 2004. Retrieved on 2008-03-09.
- ↑ "United States Capitol Police Press Releases: Lying In State for former President Reagan". United States Capitol Police. Retrieved on 2008-03-09
- ↑ Ginsberg, Stephen and Fred Barbash. Road Closures Planned in District. The Washington Post. June 11, 2004. Dostupné online [cit. 2008-06-06].
- ↑ a b c d President Bush, Tens of Thousands Visit Casket. Associated Press. Fox News, June 10, 2004. Dostupné online [cit. 2008-05-03].
- ↑ a b c Branigin, William. Thousands Bid Farewell to Reagan in Funeral Service. The Washington Post. June 11, 2004. Dostupné online [cit. 2008-05-04].
- ↑ "Slideshow: Funeral service". CNN.com.
- ↑ a b Reagan funeral guest list. news.bbc.co.uk. BBC, June 10, 2004. Dostupné online [cit. 2008-05-03].
- ↑ a b c d e f g The State Funeral of Ronald Reagan. transcripts.cnn.com. CNN, June 11, 2004. Dostupné online [cit. 2008-05-04].
- ↑ a b Preludal Music & Texts of the Anthems, Hymns & Solos Performed During the Funeral Service for Ronald Wilson Reagan at Washington National Cathedral [online]. Office of the Director of Music, Washington National Cathedral, June 10, 2004 [cit. 2008-05-04]. Dostupné online.
- ↑ Text of Danforth homily. Associated Press. USA Today, June 11, 2004. Dostupné online [cit. 2008-05-04].
- ↑ a b Von Drehle, David. Reagan Hailed as Leader for 'the Ages'. The Washington Post. June 12, 2004. Dostupné online [cit. 2008-05-22].
- ↑ a b c d e f Private burial for Ronald Reagan. news.bbc.co.uk. BBC, June 12, 2004. Dostupné online [cit. 2008-06-05].
- ↑ a b c d A Nation Bids Reagan Farewell. Associated Press. CBS, June 11, 2004. Dostupné online [cit. 2008-06-05].
- ↑ a b c d e f g h i Sun sets as Reagan laid to rest in California. Associated Press. MSNBC, June 12, 2004. Dostupné online [cit. 2008-06-05].
- ↑ "The State Funeral of Ronald Reagan" CNN Live Coverage Transcripts, June 11, 2004.
- ↑ "Reagan's children's eulogy remarks". USA Today, June 12, 2004.
- ↑ Hutcheson, Ron and Dawn C. Chmielewski. President laid to rest in sunset services. The Boston Globe. June 12, 2004. Dostupné online [cit. 2008-06-05].
- ↑ Freund, Charles Paul. Jellybeans and Jitters. Reason. June 10, 2004. Dostupné online [cit. 2008-06-12].
- ↑ a b c Baldwin, Craig. Planning and Operations for Special Events in Washington, D.C. — WWII Memorial Dedication and the Funeral of President Ronald Reagan [online]. United States Department of Transportation — Federal Highway Administration [cit. 2008-06-12]. Dostupné online.
- ↑ a b Schwartzman, Paul. A Final Journey Through Washington: Outside Andrews, a Crowd Gathers to See History. The Washington Post. June 10, 2004, s. 4. Dostupné online.
- ↑ Shister, Gail. "Network anchors see excess in Reagan funeral coverage." The Philadelphia Inquirer, June 8, 2004, page E01. Retrieved 2005-05-11.
- ↑ Goldstein, Richard. "Das Rongold: Reagan's funeral as a Wagnerian opera. The Village Voice, June 15, 2004. Retrieved 2005-05-10.
- ↑ Kunkel, Thomas. "Fade-out". American Journalism Review, August/September 2004. Retrieved 2005-08-25.
- ↑ Kurtz, Howard. "Reagan: The Retake". The Washington Post, June 7, 2004. Retrieved 2005-08-25.
External links
[editovat | editovat zdroj]Obrázky, zvuky či videa k tématu El Barto/Pískoviště na Wikimedia Commons
Video coverage of the funeral
Newspaper and Media coverage
- CNN Coverage of the Passing of Ronald Reagan
- Coverage in The Washington Post
- MSNBC Coverage of the Passing of Ronald Reagan
- Coverage in USA Today
- BBC Reagan's Mixed White House Legacy
- CBC In Depth-Ronald Reagan
- CTV Ronald Reagan-A Look Back
Additional coverage and photos
- State Funeral of Ronald Reagan-Military District of Washington
- State Funeral of Ronald Reagan-Washington National Cathedral
- Biography of Ronald Reagan from the White House
Eyewitness account