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Latvian grammar

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

The Latvian language is an extensively inflected language, with complex nominal and verbal morphology. Word order is relatively free, but the unmarked order is subject–verb–object. Latvian has pre-nominal adjectives and both prepositions and postpositions. There are no articles in Latvian, but definiteness can be indicated by the endings of adjectives.

Nouns and adjectives

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Latvian has two grammatical genders (masculine and feminine) and seven cases; there are no articles. Adjectives generally precede the nouns they modify, and agree in case, number, and gender. In addition, adjectives take distinct endings to indicate definite and indefinite interpretation:

Viņa nopirka [vecu māju]. "She bought [an old house]."
Viņš nopirka [veco māju]. "He bought [the old house]."

For details about the nominal morphology of Latvian (inflection of nouns, pronouns, numerals, and adjectives), see Latvian declension.

Verbs

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Latvian has three simple tenses (present, past and future), and three compound perfect constructions: present perfect, past perfect, future perfect.

Latvian verbs are used in five moods:

  • indicative;
  • imperative;
  • conditional;
  • conjunctive (Latvian literature, however, does not make a distinction between conditional and conjunctive. Even if such a distinction is made both of them are morphologically identical – ending in -u.);
  • quotative, also known as relative or inferential mood (some authors distinguish analytically derived jussive as a subset of quotative; others, however, insist that a simple addition of a conjunction (lai) is not sufficient basis for distinguishing this grammatical construction as a grammatical mood);[1] and
  • debitive (for expressing obligation).

The relations between tenses and moods are shown in the following table. (The table does not include quotative.)

  Indicative  Imperative  Conditional  Conjunctive  Debitive 
Simple present 
Simple past  
Simple future 
Present perfect 
Past perfect 
Future perfect 

Latvian verbs have two voices, active and passive. The passive voice is analytic, combining an auxiliary verb (tikt "become", būt "be", or more rarely, tapt "become") and the past passive participle form of the verb. Reflexive verbs are marked morphologically by the suffix -s.

Conjugation classes

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Unlike, for example, Romance languages where conjugation classes are assigned based on thematic vowels[2] (e.g., -are, -ere, -ire forming, respectively, the 1st, 2nd and 3rd conjugation in Italian) Latvian verbs are classified in conjugations regardless of whether they end in -āt, -ēt, -īt, -ot or -t. The classification depends on whether the verb stem has a thematic vowel, and if so, whether it is retained in present tense.[3]

  • The first conjugation class is characterized by an absence of the thematic vowel in infinitive, present as well as past. Furthermore 1st conjugation verbs are always monosyllabic and their stems undergo sound shifts. Based on these sound shifts they are further divided in 5 subcategories.[4] Sound shifts bolded below
Conjugation of celt
INDICATIVE (īstenības izteiksme) IMPERATIVE
(pavēles izteiksme)
Present
(tagadne)
Past
(pagātne)
Future
(nākotne)
1st pers. sg. es ceļu cēlu celšu
2nd pers. sg. tu cel cēli celsi cel
3rd pers. sg. viņš, viņa ceļ cēla cels lai ceļ
1st pers. pl. mēs ceļam cēlām celsim celsim
2nd pers. pl. jūs ceļat cēlāt celsiet,
celsit
celiet
3rd pers. pl. viņi, viņas ceļ cēla cels lai ceļ
RENARRATIVE (atstāstījuma izteiksme) PARTICIPLES (divdabji)
Present ceļot Present Active 1 (Adj.) ceļošs
Past esot cēlis Present Active 2 (Adv.) celdams
Future celšot Present Active 3 (Adv.) ceļot
Imperative lai ceļot Present Active 4 (Obj.) ceļam
CONDITIONAL (vēlējuma izteiksme) Past Active cēlis
Present Present Passive ceļams
Past būtu cēlis Past Passive celts
DEBITIVE (vajadzības izteiksme) NOMINAL FORMS
Indicative (būt) jāceļ Infinitive (nenoteiksme)
Conjunctive 1 esot jāceļ Negative Infinitive
Conjunctive 2 jāceļot Verbal noun celšana
  • The second conjugation class is characterized by retaining the thematic vowel in infinitive, past as well as present. 1st person singular present and past tenses match.
Conjugation of strādāt
INDICATIVE (īstenības izteiksme) IMPERATIVE
(pavēles izteiksme)
Present
(tagadne)
Past
(pagātne)
Future
(nākotne)
1st pers. sg. es strādāju strādāju strādāšu
2nd pers. sg. tu strādā strādāji strādāsi strādā
3rd pers. sg. viņš, viņa strādā strādāja strādās lai strādā
1st pers. pl. mēs strādājam strādājām strādāsim strādāsim
2nd pers. pl. jūs strādājat strādājāt strādāsiet,
strādāsit
strādājiet
3rd pers. pl. viņi, viņas strādā strādāja strādās lai strādā
RENARRATIVE (atstāstījuma izteiksme) PARTICIPLES (divdabji)
Present strādājot Present Active 1 (Adj.) strādājošs
Past esot strādājis Present Active 2 (Adv.) strādādams
Future strādāšot Present Active 3 (Adv.) strādājot
Imperative lai strādājot Present Active 4 (Obj.) strādājam
CONDITIONAL (vēlējuma izteiksme) Past Active strādājis
Present strādātu Present Passive strādājams
Past būtu strādājis Past Passive strādāts
DEBITIVE (vajadzības izteiksme) NOMINAL FORMS
Indicative (būt) jāstrādā Infinitive (nenoteiksme)
Conjunctive 1 esot jāstrādā Negative Infinitive
Conjunctive 2 jāstrādājot Verbal noun strādāšana
  • Verbs of the third conjugation class retain the thematic vowel in infinitive and past, however, it is absent in present and the stem takes on the full set of endings unlike 1st and 2nd conjugation where 2nd person singular and 3rd person present endings -i and -a are either absent or have given way to the thematic vowel.
Conjugation of lasīt
INDICATIVE (īstenības izteiksme) IMPERATIVE
(pavēles izteiksme)
Present
(tagadne)
Past
(pagātne)
Future
(nākotne)
1st pers. sg. es lasu lasīju lasīšu
2nd pers. sg. tu lasi lasīji lasīsi lasi
3rd pers. sg. viņš, viņa lasa lasīja lasīs lai lasa
1st pers. pl. mēs lasām lasījām lasīsim lasīsim
2nd pers. pl. jūs lasāt lasījāt lasīsiet,
lasīsit
lasiet
3rd pers. pl. viņi, viņas lasa lasīja lasīs lai lasa
RENARRATIVE (atstāstījuma izteiksme) PARTICIPLES (divdabji)
Present lasot Present Active 1 (Adj.) lasošs
Past esot lasījis Present Active 2 (Adv.) lasīdams
Future lasīšot Present Active 3 (Adv.) lasot
Imperative lai lasot Present Active 4 (Obj.) lasām
CONDITIONAL (vēlējuma izteiksme) Past Active lasījis
Present lasītu Present Passive lasāms
Past būtu lasījis Past Passive lasīts
DEBITIVE (vajadzības izteiksme) NOMINAL FORMS
Indicative (būt) jālasa Infinitive (nenoteiksme)
Conjunctive 1 esot jālasa Negative Infinitive
Conjunctive 2 jālasot Verbal noun lasīšana

The 3rd conjugation is divided into 2 subgroups, the 1st one containing the thematic vowel ī, and the 2nd subgroup – all other vowels. The only difference between the two subgroups is that verbs belonging to the 2nd subgroup do not take on the 3rd person present tense ending -a. dziedāt, es dziedu, tu dziedi but viņš dzied unlike viņš lasa.

Conjugation of dziedāt
INDICATIVE (īstenības izteiksme) IMPERATIVE
(pavēles izteiksme)
Present
(tagadne)
Past
(pagātne)
Future
(nākotne)
1st pers. sg. es dziedu dziedāju dziedāšu
2nd pers. sg. tu dziedi dziedāji dziedāsi dziedi
3rd pers. sg. viņš, viņa dzied dziedāja dziedās lai dzied
1st pers. pl. mēs dziedam dziedājām dziedāsim dziedāsim
2nd pers. pl. jūs dziedat dziedājāt dziedāsiet,
dziedāsit
dziediet
3rd pers. pl. viņi, viņas dzied dziedāja dziedās lai dzied
RENARRATIVE (atstāstījuma izteiksme) PARTICIPLES (divdabji)
Present dziedot Present Active 1 (Adj.) dziedošs
Past esot dziedājis Present Active 2 (Adv.) dziedādams
Future dziedāšot Present Active 3 (Adv.) dziedot
Imperative lai dziedot Present Active 4 (Obj.) dziedam
CONDITIONAL (vēlējuma izteiksme) Past Active dziedājis
Present dziedātu Present Passive dziedams
Past būtu dziedājis Past Passive dziedāts
DEBITIVE (vajadzības izteiksme) NOMINAL FORMS
Indicative (būt) jādzied Infinitive (nenoteiksme)
Conjunctive 1 esot jādzied Negative Infinitive
Conjunctive 2 jādziedot Verbal noun dziedāšana

Beside the three conjugations, there are three verbs characterized by different stems in present, past as well as infinitive. These verbs are referred to as "irregular" (nekārtni or neregulāri.) Irregular verbs and their stem changes are:

  • būt (esmu, biju) – to be (I am, I was)
  • iet (eju, gāju) – to go (I go, I went)
  • dot (dodu, devu) – to give (I give, I gave)

A verb's conjugation pattern can be deduced from three base forms: the infinitive form, the present stem and the past stem. The following table shows the correspondence between the base stem and the tense/mood.

stem moods and tenses derived from this stem
present stem present indicative, imperative mood, debitive mood, present participles (except participle present active 2)
past stem imperfect, past active participle
infinitive stem infinitive, future indicative, conditional mood, future conjunctive, participle present active 2, past passive participle

References

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  1. ^ Krautmane, Ērika (2006). "Evidenciālis latviešu, igauņu un lībiešu valodā (Ieskats problemātikā)" [The Evidential in the Latvian, Estonian and Livonian Languages (Introduction to the Topic)]. Linguistics Finno-Ugristics / Valodniecība Somugristika (PDF). Scientific Papers University of Latvia Volume 708 / Latvijas Universitātes Raksti 708. Sējums (in Latvian). Latvijas Universitāte. pp. 66–72. Mūsdienu latviešu literārajā gramatikā (..) tiek šķirts atstāstījuma izteiksmes pavēles paveids, uzskatot, ka atstāstījuma izteiksmes tagadnes forma saistījumā ar partikulu lai iegūst atstāstījuma izteiksmes pavēles paveida nozīmi. (..) Vairākās jaunākajās latviešu gramatikās šis viedoklis netiek atbalstīts (..) un palīgvārds lai tiek uzskatīts par pakārtojuma saikli, kas kopā ar verbu atstāstījuma izteiksmē nevar veidot gramatisku formu.
  2. ^ Harris, Martin; Vincent, Nigel, eds. (2003) [first published 1988]. Romance Languages. London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-16417-6. Verbs [in Romance languages] are traditionally divided into three conjugation classes on the basis of which thematic vowels are maximally distinguished.
  3. ^ Hewson, John; Bubeník, Vít (1997). Tense and Aspect in Indo-European Languages: Theory, Typology, Diachrony. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing. pp. 144–147. ISBN 9789027236494.
  4. ^ "Darbības vārdu konjugācijas" [Verb Conjugation]. liis.lv (in Latvian). Archived from the original on 2012-04-13.

Literature

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  • Ceplīte, B.; Ceplītis, L. (1991). Latviešu valodas praktiskā gramatika [Practical Grammar of the Latvian Language] (in Latvian). Rīgā: Zvaigzne ABC.
  • Dini, Pietro U. (1997). Le Lingue Baltiche [The Baltic Languages] (in Italian). Scandicci (Florence): La Nuova Italia Editrice.
  • Endzelīns, J. (1951). Latviešu valodas gramatika [Latvian Grammar] (in Latvian). Rīgā: Latvijas Valsts Izdevniečiba.
  • Akademija Andreja Upisa Valodas un Literaturas (1959). Mūsdienu latviešu literārās valodas gramatika [Modern Literary Latvian Language Grammar] (in Latvian). Riga: LPSR ZA izdevniecība.
  • Fennell, T. G.; H. Gelsen (1980). A Grammar of Modern Latvian (Vols. 1–3). Mouton.
  • Kalnača, Andra; Lokmane, Ilze (2021). Latvian Grammar. Rīga: University of Latvia Press. doi:10.22364/latgram.2021. ISBN 978-9934-18-635-6.
  • Karulis, K. (2001). Latviešu etimoloģijas vārdnīca [Latvian Etymology Dictionary]. Rīga: Avots.
  • Mathiassen, Terje (1996). A Short Grammar of Latvian. Columbus, OH: Slavica. ISBN 0-89357-270-5.
  • Petit, Justyna; Petit, Daniel (2004). Parlons letton [Let's Speak Latvian] (in French). Paris: L'Harmattan. ISBN 2-7475-5910-6.
  • Prauliņš, Dace (2012). Latvian: An Essential Grammar. London: Routeledge. ISBN 9780415576925.