Binciken halittu
Bioprospecting (wanda aka fi sani da Binciken halittu) bincike ne na tushen halitta don ƙananan kwayoyin, macromolecules da bayanan kwayoyin halitta da kwayoyin halitta waɗanda za a iya haɓaka su cikin samfuran kasuwanci masu mahimmanci don aikin noma, [2] about="#mwt42" class="mw-ref reference" data-cx="{}" data-mw='{"name":"ref","attrs":{"name":"pmid30465306"},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite_note-pmid30465306-3","html":"<span typeof=\"mw:Transclusion\" data-mw=\"{"name":"templatestyles","attrs":{"src":"Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"},"body":{"extsrc":""},"parts":[{"template":{"target":{"wt":"cite journal ","href":"./Template:Cite_journal"},"params":{"vauthors":{"wt":"Pandey A, Yarzábal LA"},"date":{"wt":"January 2019"},"title":{"wt":"Bioprospecting cold-adapted plant growth promoting microorganisms from mountain environments"},"journal":{"wt":"Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology"},"volume":{"wt":"103"},"issue":{"wt":"2"},"pages":{"wt":"643–657"},"doi":{"wt":"10.1007/s00253-018-9515-2"},"pmid":{"wt":"30465306"},"s2cid":{"wt":"53720063"}},"i":0}}]}\" data-ve-no-generated-contents=\"true\" id=\"mwA08\"> </span><cite about=\"#mwt39\" class=\"citation journal cs1\" id=\"CITEREFPandeyYarzábal2019\" data-ve-ignore=\"true\">Pandey A, Yarzábal LA (January 2019). \"Bioprospecting cold-adapted plant growth promoting microorganisms from mountain environments\". <i id=\"mwA1A\">Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology</i>. <b id=\"mwA1E\">103</b> (2): 643–657. <a class=\"mw-redirect cx-link\" data-linkid=\"670\" href=\"./Doi_(identifier)\" id=\"mwA1I\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"Doi (identifier)\">doi</a>:<a class=\"external text\" href=\"https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00253-018-9515-2\" id=\"mwA1M\" rel=\"mw:ExtLink nofollow\">10.1007/s00253-018-9515-2</a>. <a class=\"mw-redirect cx-link\" data-linkid=\"671\" href=\"./PMID_(identifier)\" id=\"mwA1Q\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"PMID (identifier)\">PMID</a><span id=\"mwA1U\" typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span><a class=\"external text\" href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30465306\" id=\"mwA1Y\" rel=\"mw:ExtLink nofollow\">30465306</a>. <a class=\"mw-redirect cx-link\" data-linkid=\"672\" href=\"./S2CID_(identifier)\" id=\"mwA1c\" rel=\"mw:WikiLink\" title=\"S2CID (identifier)\">S2CID</a><span id=\"mwA1g\" typeof=\"mw:Entity\"> </span><a class=\"external text\" href=\"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:53720063\" id=\"mwA1k\" rel=\"mw:ExtLink nofollow\">53720063</a>.</cite>"}}' id="cite_ref-pmid30465306_3-0" rel="dc:references" typeof="mw:Extension/ref">[./Bioprospecting#cite_note-pmid30465306-3 [2]] aquaculture, [3] bioremediation, [3] kayan shafawa, [4] [5] nanotechnology, [3] [4] ko masana'antun magunguna [4] [5] .[6][7][8][9] A cikin masana'antar magunguna, alal misali, kusan kashi ɗaya bisa uku na duk ƙananan magungunan da Hukumar Abinci da Magunguna ta Amurka (FDA) ta amince da su tsakanin 1981 da 2014 ko dai kayayyakin halitta ne ko mahadi da aka samo daga kayayyakin halitta.[10]
Tsire-tsire na ƙasa, fungi da actinobacteria sun kasance masu mayar da hankali ga shirye-shiryen bioprospecting dayawa da suka gabata, amma sha'awar tana girma a cikin yanayin halittu da ba'a bincika su ba (misali teku da teku) da kwayoyin halitta (misali myxobacteria, archaea) a matsayin hanyar gano sabbin mahadi tare da Ayyukan halittu na zamani. [6] [9][11][12] Ana iya tantance nau'o'in ba zato ba tsammani don aikin rayuwa ko zaɓaɓɓen tunani kuma ana tantance su bisa ga ilimin muhalli, Ethnobiological, ethnomedical, tarihi ko bayanan genomic.[9][13][14]
Lokacin da albarkatun halittu na yankin ko ilimin 'yan asalin sun kasance ba bisa ka'ida ba ko kuma anyi amfani dashi ta hanyar kasuwanci batare da samar da diyya mai kyau ba, wannan an san shi da biopiracy.[15] An tattauna yarjejeniyoyi daban-daban na kasa da kasa don samar da kasashe damar shari'a a yayin da akayi amfani da kwayoyin halitta da kuma ba 'yan wasan kasuwanci tabbacin shari'a don saka hannun jari. Wadannan sun hada da Yarjejeniyar Majalisar Dinkin Duniya kan Bambancin Halitta da Yarjejeniya ta Nagoya.[2][9] WIPO a halin yanzu tana tattaunawa kan karin yarjejeniyoyi don magance gibin a wannan fagen.
Sauran haɗarin dake tattare da binciken halittu sune yawan girbi na jinsuna da lalacewar muhalli, amma an samar da dokoki don magance waɗannan. Misalan sun haɗa da dokokin ƙasa kamar Dokar Kare Mammal ta Amurka da Dokar Dabbobi Masu Hadari ta Amurka, da yarjejeniyar kasa da kasa kamar Yarjejeniyar Majalisar Dinkin Duniya kan Bambancin Halitta, Yarjejeniyar UN kan Dokar Tekun, Biodiversity Beyond National Jurisdiction Treaty, da Yarjejeniyar Antarctic . [9][16]
Abubuwan da aka samo daga binciken halittu da kayayyaki
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]Aikin noma
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]Abubuwan da aka samo daga binciken halittu da samfuran da akayi amfani dasu a aikin gona sun haɗa da biofertilizers, biopesticides da maganin rigakafi na dabbobi. Rhizobium wani nau'in kwayoyin cuta ne na ƙasa da ake amfani dasu azaman masu amfani da kwayoyin cuti, [17] Bacillus thuringiensis (wanda ake kira Bt) da annonins (wanda aka samo daga tsaba na shuka Annona squamosa) misalai ne na maganin rigakafi ne, [18] [19] da valnemulin da tiamulin (wanda aka gano kuma aka haɓaka daga basidiomycete fungi Omphalina mutila da Clitopilus passeckerianus) misalai na maganin rigamunan dabbobi ne.[20][21][22]
Gyara Rayuwa
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]Misalan samfuran bioprospecting da aka yi amfani dasu a cikin bioremediation sun haɗa da Coriolopsis gallica- da Phanerochaete chrysosporium-derived laccase enzymes, waɗanda akayi amfani dasu don magance ruwan da akayi da giya da kuma lalata da kuma lalata kayan aikin takarda.[8]
Kayan shafawa da kula da mutum
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]Kayan shafawa da kayayyakin kulawa da aka samo daga bioprospecting sun haɗa da Porphyridium cruentum-derived oligosaccharide da oligoelement blends da akayi amfani dasu don magance erythema (Rosecea, flushing da duhu da'irori), [6] Xanthobacter autotrophicus-derived zeaxanthin da akayi aiki don ruwa da UV kariya, [7] Clostridium histolyticum-derivative collagenases da akayi dasu don sake farfado da fata, [7] Microsporum-deriven keratinases da akayi šomi da akayi don cire gashi.
Nanotechnology da biosensors
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]Saboda laccases na microbial suna da kewayon substrate mai yawa, ana iya amfani dasu a cikin fasahar biosensor don gano nau'ikan kwayoyin halitta da yawa. Misali, ana amfani da electrodes masu dauke da laccase don gano mahaɗan polyphenolic a cikin ruwan inabi, da lignins da phenols a cikin Ruwa mai guba.[8]
Magunguna
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]Yawancin Magungunan rigakafin ƙwayoyin cuta da ake amfani dasu a yanzu an gano su ta hanyar bioprospecting ciki har da aminoglycosides, tetracyclines, amphenicols, polymyxins, cephalosporins da sauran maganin rigakafin β-lactam, macrolides, pleuromutilins, glycopeptides, rifamycins, lincosamides, streptogramins, da maganin rigakafi na phosphonic acid.[9] Misali, an gano maganin rigakafin aminoglycoside streptomycin daga kwayar cutar Streptomyces griseus, an gano kwayar cutar fusidane daga kwayar halitta Acremonium fusidioides, kuma an gano maganin maganin rigakafi na pleuromutilin (misali lefamulin) kuma an haɓaka shi daga kwayar cuta ta basidiomycete Omphalina mutila da Clitopilus passeckerianus . [9][21]
Sauran misalai na magungunan rigakafin cututtukan cututtukat da aka samo daga bioprospecting sun haɗa da maganin rigakafin ƙwayoyin cuta griseofulvin (wanda aka gano daga ƙwayoyin ƙwayoyin halitta na ƙasa mai suna Streptomyces nodosus), [23] maganin rigakafi na ƙwayoyin cutar ƙwayoyin jiki mai suna Artemisinin (wanda aka samo daga shuka Artemisia annua), da maganin rigakatwa mai suna ivermectin (wanda aka haɓaka daga ƙwayohin ƙwayoyin jini mai suna Streepitomyces).[24][1][25][26]
An kirkiro magungunan da aka samo daga binciken halittu don maganin cututtukan da ba sa yaduwa da kuma yanayin. Wadannan sun hada da maganin rigakafin cutar kansa kwari" rel="mw:WikiLink" title="Bleomycin">bleomycin (wanda aka samo daga kwayar cuta ta ƙasa Streptomyces verticillus), [27] maganin rigakafi mai hana rigakafi ciclosporin da akayi amfani dashi don magance cututtukan rigakafi irin su rheumatoid arthritis da psoriasis (wanda aka samu daga ƙwayoyin cuta na ƙasa Tolypocladium inflatum), maganin maganin rigakacin kumburi colchicine da akayi dashi don maganin cututtukansu (wanda aka samar daga shuke-tsarin Colchicine na Acetylum autnale), [1] maganin cututtainus), [3] maganin maganin cututtarine da cututtukar cututtuken Acetine (wanda akayi amfani dashi daga cututtukatare na cututtukun Acetine), [11] da cututtariteus), [4] da suka kamuwa da cututtsarin Acetine).[28]
Binciken halittu a matsayin dabarun ganowa
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]Bioprospecting yana da ƙarfi da raunin a matsayin dabarun gano sabbin kwayoyin halitta, kwayoyin, da kwayoyin da suka dace da cigaba da kasuwanci.
Ƙarfi
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]![](http://178.128.105.246/cars-http-upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Halichondrin_B.svg/220px-Halichondrin_B.svg.png)
ƙananan kwayoyin da aka samo daga binciken halittu (wanda akafi sani da samfuran halitta) sun fi rikitarwa fiye da sunadarai na roba, sabili da haka suna nuna mafi girman takamaiman ga manufofi na halitta. Wannan babban fa'ida ne a cikin ganowa da ci gaba da magunguna, musamman fannoni na magunguna na ganowa da haɓaka, inda tasirin da ba'ayi niyya bazai iya haifar da mummunan halayen magunguna.[9]
Kayan halitta sun fi dacewa da jigilar membrane fiye da mahaɗan roba. Wannan yana da fa'ida yayin haɓaka magungunan rigakafin ƙwayoyin cuta, wanda zai iya buƙatar ratsa duka membrane na waje da membrane na plasma don isa ga burinsu.[9]
Ga wasu sababbin kimiyyar halittu don aiki, yana da mahimmanci a sami enzymes waɗanda ke aiki a yanayin zafi mai yawa ko ƙasa. Misali na wannan shine polymerase chain reaction (PCR), wanda ya dogara da DNA polymerase wanda zai iya aiki a 60 ° C da sama.[12] A wasu yanayi, misali dephosphorylation, yana iya zama abin sha'awa a gudanar da martani a low zafin jiki.[11] Extremophile bioprospecting muhimmiyar tushe ce ta irin waɗannan enzymes, suna samar da enzymes masu tsayayya da zafi kamar <i id="mwAWM">Taq</i> polymerase (daga Thermus aquaticus), [12] da enzymes da suka dace da sanyi kamar shrimp alkaline phosphatase (daga Pandalus borealis). [11]
Tare da Yarjejeniyar Biological Diversity (CBD) yanzu da yawancin ƙasashe suka tabbatar, bioprospecting yana da damar kawo kasashe masu wadataccen halittu da fasaha tare, da kuma amfana dasu duka a ilimi da tattalin arziki (misali raba bayanai, canja wurin fasaha, sabon ci gaban samfur, biyan kuɗi). [2][30]
Ga kwayoyin da aka gano ta hanyar binciken microbial, sikelin samarwa yana yiwuwa a farashi mai kyau saboda ana iya al'ada kwayar cuta a cikin bioreactor.[7][31]
Rashin ƙarfi
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]![](http://178.128.105.246/cars-http-upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Koeh-146-no_text.jpg/220px-Koeh-146-no_text.jpg)
Kodayake an san wasu kwayoyin da zasu iya amfani sosai a cikin yanayi (misali kwayoyin lignocellulose-metabolizing), an fuskanci matsaloli wajen noma waɗannan a cikin dakin gwaje-gwaje.[33] Wannan matsala na iya warwarewa ta hanyar sarrafa kwayoyin halitta masu sauƙin al'ada kamar Escherichia coli ko Streptomyces coelicolor don bayyana tarin kwayoyin halitta dake da alhakin aikin da akeso.[12][34]
Keɓewa da gano fili (s) dake da alhakin aikin kwayar halitta na iya zama da wahala.[34] Har ila yau, bayanin da ya biyo baya game da tsarin aikin mahaɗin da aka ware na iya cin lokaci.[34] Ci gaban fasaha a cikin ruwa chromatography, Mass spectrometry da sauran dabarun suna taimakawa wajen shawo kan waɗannan ƙalubalen.[34]
Aiwatar da aiwatar da yarjejeniyoyi da dokoki masu alaƙa da binciken halittu ba koyaushe yake da sauƙi ba.[2][30] Ci gaban miyagun ƙwayoyi tsari ne mai tsada da cin lokaci tare da ƙarancin nasara, kuma wannan yasa ya zama da wahala a ƙididdige darajar samfuran da za'a iya amfani dasu yayin tsara yarjejeniyar binciken halittu.[2] Hakkin mallakar ilimi na iya zama da wahala a bada kyauta. Misali, haƙƙin doka ga tsire-tsire na magani na iya zama mai rikitarwa idan mutane daban-daban ne suka gano shi a sassa daban-daban na duniya a lokuta daban-daban.[2]
Duk da yake rikitarwa na tsari na samfuran halitta yana da fa'ida a cikin binciken magani, yana iya sa ƙera ƙirar ƙwayoyin cuta da wuya. Wannan matsala wani lokacin ana iya warware ta hanyar gano ɓangaren tsarin samfurin halitta wanda ke da alhakin aiki da haɓaka analog ɗin roba mai sauƙi. Wannan ya zama dole tare da samfurin halitta halichondrin B, sauƙaƙe analog eribulin yanzu an amince da shi kuma ana tallata shi azaman maganin maganin cutar kansa.[35]
Rashin tabbas na nazarin halittu
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]Kuskuren da kuma wuce gona da iri na iya faruwa a matakai daban-daban a cikin tsarin binciken halittu ciki har da tattara kayan tushe, tantance kayan tushe don aikin rayuwa, gwajin mahaɗan da aka ware don guba, da kuma gano hanyar aiki.
Tarin kayan tushe
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]![](http://178.128.105.246/cars-http-upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Allurus_muricatus_JS10_00405_lateral.jpg/220px-Allurus_muricatus_JS10_00405_lateral.jpg)
Kafin tattara kayan halitta ko ilimin gargajiya, dole ne a sami izini daidai daga asalin ƙasar, mai mallakar ƙasa da sauransu. Rashin yin hakan na iya haifar da aikata laifuka da kin amincewa da duk wani aikace-aikacen patent na gaba. Har ila yau, yana da mahimmanci a tattara kayan halittu a cikin isasshen adadi, don samun kayan halittu da aka gano a hukumance, da kuma saka samfurin takardar shaidar tare da ajiya don adanawa da adanawa na dogon lokaci. Wannan yana taimakawa tabbatar da cewa duk wani muhimmin binciken da aka gano ana iya sake shi.[9][11]
Bioactivity da gwajin guba
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]Lokacin da aka cire gwaje-gwaje da mahadi masu rarrabe don bioactivity da guba, amfani da daidaitattun ladabi (misali CLSI, ISO, NIH, EURL ECVAM, OECD) yana da kyau saboda wannan yana inganta daidaito na sakamakon gwajin da sakewa. Har ila yau, idan tushen kayan yana iya ƙunshe da sanannun (wanda aka gano a baya) mahadi masu aiki (misali streptomycin a cikin yanayin actinomycetes), to, yazama dole a cire waɗannan abubuwan da mahadi daga bututun binciken da wuri-wuri. Bugu da kari, yana da mahimmanci a yi la'akari da tasirin mai narkewa a kan sel ko layin tantanin halitta da ake gwadawa, don haɗawa da mahadi masu tushe (watau mahadi masu tsabta waɗanda keda cikakkiyar bioactivity da bayanan guba), don saita iyakoki akan lambar sashi na layin tantancewa (misali sassan 10-20), don haɗawa ga duk abubuwan da suka dace masu kyau da marasa kyau, da kuma sanin iyakokin gwaji. Wadannan matakai suna taimakawa wajen tabbatar da sakamakon gwaji daidai ne, ana iya sake shi kuma ana fassara shi daidai.[9][11]
Bayyana tsarin aiki
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]Lokacin ƙoƙarin bayyana tsarin aikin wani abu ko fili mai zaman kansa, yana da mahimmanci a yi amfani da gwaje-gwaje masu yawa. Yin amfani da gwaji guda ɗaya kawai, musamman gwaji guda ɗaya na in vitro, yana ba da hoto mara cikakke na wani abu ko tasirin fili a jikin mutum.[36][37] A cikin yanayin Valeriana officinalis tushen cirewa, alal misali, tasirin dake haifar da barci na wannan cirewa saboda mahadi da hanyoyin da suka hada da hulɗa tare da Masu karɓar GABA da shakatawa na tsoka mai santsi.[36] Hakanan za'a iya kuskuren tsarin aiki na fili mai zaman kansa idan akayi amfani da gwaji guda ɗaya saboda wasu mahadi suna tsoma baki tare da gwaje-gwaje. Misali, gwajin sulfhydryl-scavenging da akayi amfani dashi don gano histone acetyltransferase inhibition na iya bada sakamako mai kyau idan mahaɗin gwajin ya amsa tare da cysteines.[37]
Rashin hankula
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]Pat Mooney ne ya kirkiro kalmar biopiracy, [38] don bayyana aikin da wasu ke amfani da ilimin asali na yanayi, wanda ya samo asali ne daga 'Yan asalin ƙasar, don riba, ba tare da izini ko diyya ga' yan asalin ƙasar da kansu ba. [39] Misali, lokacin da masu binciken halittu suka yi amfani da ilimin asali na tsire-tsire na magani wanda daga baya kamfanonin kiwon lafiya suka ba da izini ba tare da sanin gaskiyar cewa ilimin ba sabon abu ba ne ko kuma mai bada izinin ya kirkireshi ba, wannan yana hana al'ummar 'yan asalin damar da suka samu ga samfurin kasuwanci wanda aka samo daga fasahar da kansu suka bunkasa ba.[40] Masu sukar wannan aikin, kamar Greenpeace, suna da'awar cewa waɗannan ayyukan suna ba da gudummawa ga rashin daidaito tsakanin ƙasashe masu tasowa masu wadata da bambancin halittu, da ƙasashe masu cigaba dake karɓar kamfanonin biotech. [41][40]
A cikin shekarun 1990s yawancin manyan kamfanonin magunguna da magunguna sun amsa ga cajin biopiracy ta hanyar dakatar da aiki a kan kayayyakin halitta, suna juyawa zuwa ilmin sunadarai don haɓaka sabbin mahadi.[38]
Shahararrun shari'o'in satar halittu
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]![](http://178.128.105.246/cars-http-upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Catharanthus_roseus_white_CC-BY-SA.jpg/220px-Catharanthus_roseus_white_CC-BY-SA.jpg)
Rosy periwinkle case ya samo asali ne daga shekarun 1950. Rosy periwinkle, yayin da yake asalin Madagascar, an gabatar dashi a wasu ƙasashe masu zafi a duniya kafin gano vincristine. An bayar da rahoton kasashe daban-daban da suka sami imani daban-daban game da kaddarorin kiwon lafiya na shuka.[42] Wannan yana nufin cewa masu bincike zasu iya samun ilimin gida daga wata ƙasa kuma su shuka samfurori daga wata. Amfani da shuka don Ciwon sukari shine asalin motsawa don bincike. An gano tasiri a cikin maganin Hodgkin lymphoma da leukemia a maimakon haka.[43] Magungunan Hodgkin lymphoma chemotherapeutic vinblastin ana iya samo shine daga periwinkle mai laushi.[44]
Rikici na Maya ICBG
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]Rikici na binciken halittu na Maya ICBG ya faru ne a cikin 1999-2000, lokacin da aka zargi Ƙungiyar Haɗin Kai ta Duniya da Masanin ilimin halittu Brent Berlin da shiga cikin nau'ikan binciken halittu da basu dace bata hanyar kungiyoyi masu zaman kansu da kungiyoyin 'yan asalin ƙasar. ICBG ta yi niyyar yin rikodin bambancin halittu na Chiapas, Mexico, da kuma ilimin ethnobotanical na 'yan asalin Maya - don tabbatar da ko akwai yiwuwar haɓaka samfuran kiwon lafiya bisa ga kowane tsire-tsire da kungiyoyin' yan asalin sukayi amfani dasu.[45]
Shari'ar Maya ICBG ta kasance daga cikin na farko da ta jawo hankali ga matsalolin rarrabewa tsakanin nau'ikan bioprospecting da biopiracy mara kyau, da kuma matsalolin tabbatar da shiga cikin al'umma da kuma amincewar da aka ba da labari ga masu binciken bioprospectors.[46]
Itacen neem
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]![](http://178.128.105.246/cars-http-upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Neemtree.jpg/220px-Neemtree.jpg)
A cikin 1994, Ma'aikatar Aikin Gona ta Amurka da W. R. Grace da Kamfanin sun sami takardar shaidar Turai kan hanyoyin sarrafa cututtukan ƙwayoyin cuta a cikin tsire-tsire ta amfani da abun da ya haɗa da abubuwan da aka cire daga itacen neem (Azadirachta indica), wanda ke girma a duk faɗin Indiya da Nepal. [47] [48] A shekara ta 2000 kungiyoyi dayawa daga EU da Indiya sunyi nasarar adawa da takardar shaidar ta hanyar tsayayya da ita ta hanyar tsaron EU, Vandana Shiva, da kuma Tarayyar Kasa da Kasa ta Motsi na Aikin Gona (IFOAM) bisa ga cewa an san aikin fungicidal na ƙwayar neem a cikin maganin gargajiya na Indiya.[48] WR Grace ta daukaka kara kuma ta rasa a shekara ta 2005.
Shinkafa ta Basmati
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]A cikin shekara ta 1997, kamfanin RiceTec na Amurka (wani reshe na RiceTec AG na Liechtenstein) yayi ƙoƙari yabada izini ga wasu nau'ikan shinkafa na basmati da shinkafa mai tsawo.[49] Gwamnatin Indiya ta kalubalanci wannan takardar shaidar kuma, a cikin shekara ta 2002, goma sha biyar daga cikin takardar shaidarsa ashirin sun zama marasa inganci.[50]
Yaƙin Enola
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]![](http://178.128.105.246/cars-http-upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/%22Enola%22_Bean_4_%283887465932%29.jpg/220px-%22Enola%22_Bean_4_%283887465932%29.jpg)
Enola bean iri-iri ne na ruwan hoda mai launin rawaya na Mexico, wanda ake kira bayan matar mutumin da yabada izini a shekarar 1999. [51] Abubuwan da ake zargin bambance-bambance na iri-iri shine tsaba na takamaiman inuwa na rawaya. Mai mallakar takardar shaidar daga baya ya kai karar masu shigo da wake masu launin rawaya na Mexico tare da sakamakon da ya biyo baya: "... tallace-tallace na fitarwa nan da nan ya sauka sama da 90% tsakanin masu shigo da kaya dake sayar da waɗannan wake shekaru dayawa, wanda ya haifar da lalacewar tattalin arziki ga manoma sama da 22,000 a arewacin Mexico waɗanda suka dogara da tallace-kashen wannan wake. " An shigar da karar a madadin manoma kuma, a cikin 2005, US-PTO tayi mulki a madadin Manoma.[52] A shekara ta 2008, an soke takardar shaidar.[53]
Hoodia gordonii
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]Hoodia gordonii, shuka mai ɗanɗano, ya samo asali ne daga hamadar Kalahari ta Afirka ta Kudu. Domin tsararraki an san shi ga Mutanen San da ke rayuwa a al'ada a matsayin mai hana cin abinci. A cikin 1996 Majalisar Afirka ta Kudu don Binciken Kimiyya da Masana'antu tafara aiki tare da kamfanoni, gami da Unilever, don haɓaka ƙarin abinci bisa ga Hoodia.[54][55][56] Asalin mutanen San ba'a shirya su sami wata fa'ida daga kasuwanci na ilimin gargajiya ba, amma a cikin 2003 Majalisar San ta Afirka ta Kudu ta yi yarjejeniya da CSIR inda zasu sami daga 6 zuwa 8% na kudaden shiga daga sayar da kayayyakin Hoodia.
A shekara ta 2008 bayan sun saka Yuro miliyan 20 a cikin R&D a kan Hoodia a matsayin mai yuwuwar sinadarin abinci don asarar nauyi, Unilever ta dakatar da aikin saboda binciken asibiti bai nuna cewa Hoodia yana da aminci kuma yana da inganci don kawowa kasuwa ba.[57]
Ƙarin shari'o'i
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]Wadannan sune zaɓin ƙarin shari'o'in da suka faru kwanan nan na biopiracy. Yawancin su basu da alaƙa da magungunan gargajiya.
- Kashi talatin da shida na satar halittu a Afirka.[58]
- Labarin abin sha na mutanen Maya.[59][60]
- Lamarin Maya da sauran mutane suna amfani da Mimosa tenuiflora da sauran lokuta dayawa.[61]
- Lamarin maca radish na Andean.[62]
- Abubuwan da suka shafi turmeric (India), karela (India), quinoa (Bolivia), Mantuwa da 'ya'yan itace (Gabon), da sauransu. [63][64]
- Labarin captopril (wanda aka haɓaka daga guba ta ƙabilar Brazil). [65]
Al'amuran shari'a da siyasa
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]Dokar haƙƙin mallaka
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]Ɗaya daga cikin rashin fahimta na yau da kullun shine kamfanonin magunguna sun bada izini ga tsire-tsire da suke tattarawa. Duk da yake samun takardar shaidar a kan kwayar halitta kamar yadda aka sani ko aka yi amfani da ita a baya bazai yiwu ba, ana iya fitar da takardun shaida a kan takamaiman sunadarai da aka ware ko haɓaka daga tsire-tsire. Sau dayawa ana samun waɗannan takardun shaida tare da bayyanawa da bincike game da amfani da waɗannan sunadarai. [ana buƙatar hujja][ana buƙatar ƙa'ida] Gabaɗaya wanzuwar, tsari da kira na waɗancan mahadi ba wani ɓangare ne na ilimin likitanci na asali wanda ya jagoranci masu bincike su bincika shuka da farko. A sakamakon haka, koda kuwa an dauki ilimin likitanci na asali a matsayin fasaha ta baya, wannan ilimin da kansa bayasa mahaɗin sinadarai mai aiki "a bayyane" wanda shine ma'auni da akayi amfani dashi a ƙarƙashin dokar patent.
A cikin Amurka, ana iya amfani da dokar patent don kare mahadi "mai keɓewa da tsarkakewa" - har ma, a cikin misali ɗaya, sabon sinadarin sunadarai (duba USP 3,156,523). A cikin 1873, Louis Pasteur ya ba da izini ga "yisti" wanda "ba shi da cuta" (patent # 141072). An bi da takardun shaida da ke rufe abubuwan kirkirar halittu iri ɗaya. A cikin shari'ar 1980 na Diamond v. Chakrabarty, Kotun Koli ta amince da takardar shaidar a kan kwayar cuta da aka gyara ta hanyar kwayar cuti don cinye man fetur, tana tunanin cewa dokar Amurka ta bada izinin takardar shaidaya a kan "duk abin da mutum yayi a ƙarƙashin rana". Ofishin Jakadancin Amurka da Trademark (USPTO) ya lura cewa "takardar shaidar kan kwayar halitta ta rufe kwayar halitta da aka ware kuma ta tsarkake amma ba ta rufe kwaya kamar yadda take faruwa a cikin yanayi".
Hakanan yana yiwuwa a ƙarƙashin dokar Amurka shine ba da izini ga cultivar, sabon nau'in kwayoyin dake akwai. Takardar shaidar a kan wake na Enola (yanzu an soke shi) [66] misali ne na irin wannan takardar shaidar. Dokokin mallakar ilimi na Amurka sun kuma amince da haƙƙin masu shuka a ƙarƙashin Dokar Kare Tsire-tsire, 7 USC §§ 2321-2582.[67]
Yarjejeniyar Biological Diversity
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]![](http://178.128.105.246/cars-http-upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Convention_on_Biological_Diversity2.svg/220px-Convention_on_Biological_Diversity2.svg.png)
Yarjejeniyar Biological Diversity (CBD) ta fara aiki a 1993. Ya sami haƙƙin sarrafa damar samun albarkatun kwayar halitta ga ƙasashen da waɗannan albarkatun suke. Ɗaya daga cikin manufofin CBD shine don bada damar ƙasashe masu tasowa don amfana da albarkatunsu da ilimin gargajiya. A karkashin ka'idojin CBD, ana buƙatar masu binciken halittu don samun izinin samun damar samun irin waɗannan albarkatun, kuma dole ne su raba duk fa'idodi tare da ƙasar dake da wadataccen halittu.[68] Koyaya, wasu masu sukar sunyi imanin cewa CBD ta kasa kafa ƙa'idodi masu dacewa don hana satar halittu. Sauran suna da'awar cewa babban matsalar ita ce gazawar gwamnatocin ƙasa don zartar da dokoki masu dacewa da aiwatar da tanadin CBD.[69] Yarjejeniyar Nagoya ga CBD, wacce ta fara aiki a cikin 2014, ta bada ƙarin ƙa'idodi.[70] Kasashe 196 da hukunce-hukuncen duniya sun tabbatar da CBD, sun yarda ko kuma sun yarda da ita, tare da banbanci ciki har da Mai Tsarki da Amurka.[71]
Yarjejeniyar Bincike
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]Abubuwan da ake buƙata don binciken halittu kamar yadda CBD ta saita sun kirkiro sabon reshe na haƙƙin mallaka na duniya da Dokar kasuwanci, kwangilar binciken halittu.[2] Kundin bincike na halittu ya kafa ka'idojin raba fa'idodi tsakanin masu bincike da ƙasashe, kuma yana iya kawo sarauta ga Kasashe masu tasowa. Koyaya, kodayake waɗannan kwangila sun dogara ne akan yardar da aka ba da labari da diyya (ba kamar biopiracy ba), kowane mai shi ko mai ɗaukar ilimin asali da albarkatun ba koyaushe ake tuntuɓar ko biyan diyya ba, saboda zai zama da wahala a tabbatar da cewa an haɗa kowane mutum.[72][73] Saboda wannan, wasu sun ba da shawarar cewa 'yan asalin ko wasu al'ummomi sun samar da wani nau'i na wakilin karamin gwamnati wanda zai tattauna da masu bincike don samar da kwangila ta hanyar da al'umma zata amfana daga shirye-shiryen.[73] Ana iya kallon kwangilar bioprospecting mara kyau (kamar yadda ya bambanta da na ɗabi'a) a matsayin sabon nau'in biopiracy.
Misali na kwangilar bioprospecting shine yarjejeniyar tsakanin Merck da INBio na Costa Ruwa. [74]
Bayanan ilimin gargajiya
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]Saboda shari'o'in da suka gabata na biopiracy da kuma hana ƙarin shari'oʼi, Gwamnatin Indiya ta canza bayanan gargajiya na Indiya daga rubuce-rubucen tsohuwar da sauran albarkatun zuwa albarkatun lantarki; wannan ya haifar da Laburaren Al'adun Al'ada a cikin 2001.[75] Ana rubuta matani daga Tamil, Sanskrit, Urdu, Farisa da Larabci; ana samun su ga ofisoshin patent a Turanci, Jamusanci, Faransanci, Jafananci da Mutanen Espanya. Manufar itace kare al'adun Indiya daga kamfanonin kasashen waje dake amfani dasu. Ana kuma adana daruruwan yoga a cikin tarin.[76] Har ila yau, ɗakin karatu ya sanya hannu kan yarjejeniyoyi tare da manyan Ofisoshin patent na kasa da kasa kamar su Ofishin Patent na Turai (EPO), Ofishin Trademark & Patent na Burtaniya (UKTPO) da Ofishin Patent da Trademark na Amurka don kare ilimin gargajiya daga biopiracy yayin da yake bada damar masu jarrabawa a Ofisoshin Patent na Duniya don samun damar bayanan TKDL don bincike da jarrabawa.[63]
Dubi kuma
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]- Babban abin dake cikin ilimi / dukiyar ilimiDukiyar hankali
- Babban birnin halitta
- Takardar shaidar halittu
- Ilimin gargajiya / Ilimin asalin ƙasarIlimin 'yan asalin ƙasar
- Magunguna
- Hakkin masu shuka shuke-shuke
- Bioths
- Rikici na nuna bambancin halittu na Maya ICBG
- Ƙungiyar Haɗin Kai ta Duniya
- Dokar Biological Diversity, 2002
- Yarjejeniya kan Al'amuran Kasuwanci na 'Yancin Mallaka (TRIPS) (1994)
- Yarjejeniyar Kasa da Kasa kan albarkatun shuke-shuke don abinci da aikin gona (2001)
Manazarta
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]- ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 Buenz EJ, Verpoorte R, Bauer BA (January 2018). "The ethnopharmacologic contribution to bioprospecting natural products". Annual Review of Pharmacology and Toxicology. 58 (1): 509–530. doi:10.1146/annurev-pharmtox-010617-052703. PMID 29077533.
- ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 "Mobilizing funding for biodiversity conservation: a user-friendly training guide" (PDF). United Nations. Retrieved 17 July 2020.
- ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 Beattie AJ, Hay M, Magnusson B, de Nys R, Smeathers J, Vincent JF (May 2011). "Ecology and bioprospecting". Austral Ecology. 36 (3): 341–356. doi:10.1111/j.1442-9993.2010.02170.x. PMC 3380369. PMID 22737038.
- ↑ Mazarrasa I, Olsen YS, Mayol E, Marbà N, Duarte CM (October 2014). "Global unbalance in seaweed production, research effort and biotechnology markets". Biotechnology Advances. 32 (5): 1028–36. doi:10.1016/j.biotechadv.2014.05.002. PMID 24858315.
- ↑ Pascoal F, Magalhães C, Costa R (February 2020). "The link between the ecology of the prokaryotic rare biosphere and its biotechnological potential". Frontiers in Microbiology. 11: Article 231. doi:10.3389/fmicb.2020.00231. PMC 7042395. PMID 32140148.
- ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 Abida H, Ruchaud S, Rios L, Humeau A, Probert I, De Vargas C, Bach S, Bowler C (November 2013). "Bioprospecting marine plankton". Marine Drugs. 11 (11): 4594–4611. doi:10.3390/md11114594. PMC 3853748. PMID 24240981.
- ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 7.3 Gupta PL, Rajput M, Oza T, Trivedi U, Sanghvi G (August 2019). "Eminence of microbial products in cosmetic industry". Natural Products and Bioprospecting. 9 (4): 267–278. doi:10.1007/s13659-019-0215-0. PMC 6646485. PMID 31214881.
- ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 Upadhyay P, Shrivastava R, Agrawal PK (June 2016). "Bioprospecting and biotechnological applications of fungal laccase". 3 Biotech. 6 (1): Article 15. doi:10.1007/s13205-015-0316-3. PMC 4703590. PMID 28330085.
- ↑ 9.00 9.01 9.02 9.03 9.04 9.05 9.06 9.07 9.08 9.09 9.10 9.11 9.12 Cushnie TP, Cushnie B, Echeverría J, Fowsantear W, Thammawat S, Dodgson JL, Law S, Clow SM (June 2020). "Bioprospecting for antibacterial drugs: a multidisciplinary perspective on natural product source material, bioassay selection and avoidable pitfalls". Pharmaceutical Research. 37 (7): Article 125. doi:10.1007/s11095-020-02849-1. PMID 32529587. S2CID 219590658. Cite error: Invalid
<ref>
tag; name "pmid32529587" defined multiple times with different content - ↑ Newman DJ, Cragg GM (March 2016). "Natural products as sources of new drugs from 1981 to 2014". Journal of Natural Products. 79 (3): 629–661. doi:10.1021/acs.jnatprod.5b01055. PMID 26852623.
- ↑ 11.0 11.1 11.2 11.3 11.4 11.5 Svenson J (May 2012). "MabCent: Arctic marine bioprospecting in Norway". Phytochemistry Reviews. 12 (3): 567–578. doi:10.1007/s11101-012-9239-3. PMC 3777186. PMID 24078803.
- ↑ 12.0 12.1 12.2 12.3 Sysoev M, Grötzinger SW, Renn D, Eppinger J, Rueping M, Karan R (February 2021). "Bioprospecting of novel extremozymes from prokaryotes—the advent of culture-independent methods". Frontiers in Microbiology. 12: Article 630013. doi:10.3389/fmicb.2021.630013. PMC 7902512. PMID 33643258 Check
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value (help). - ↑ Saslis-Lagoudakis CH, Savolainen V, Williamson EM, Forest F, Wagstaff SJ, Baral SR, Watson MF, Pendry CA, Hawkins JA (September 2012). "Phylogenies reveal predictive power of traditional medicine in bioprospecting". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 109 (39): 15835–40. Bibcode:2012PNAS..10915835S. doi:10.1073/pnas.1202242109. PMC 3465383. PMID 22984175.
- ↑ Baana K, Angwech H, Malinga GM (May 2018). "Ethnobotanical survey of plants used as repellents against housefly, Musca domestica L. (Diptera: Muscidae) in Budondo Subcounty, Jinja District, Uganda". Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine. 14 (1): Article 35. doi:10.1186/s13002-018-0235-6. PMC 5946462. PMID 29747673.
- ↑ "Biopiracy". www.merriam-webster.com. Merriam-Webster. 2020. Retrieved 17 July 2020.
- ↑ Benson E (February 2012). "Endangered science: the regulation of research by the U.S. Marine Mammal Protection and Endangered Species Acts". Historical Studies in the Natural Sciences. 42 (1): 30–61. doi:10.1525/hsns.2012.42.1.30. PMID 27652415.
- ↑ John RP, Tyagi RD, Brar SK, Surampalli RY, Prévost D (September 2011). "Bio-encapsulation of microbial cells for targeted agricultural delivery". Critical Reviews in Biotechnology. 31 (3): 211–226. doi:10.3109/07388551.2010.513327. PMID 20879835. S2CID 207467630.
- ↑ Wei JZ, Hale K, Carta L, Platzer E, Wong C, Fang SC, Aroian RV (2003). "Bacillus thuringiensis crystal proteins that target nematodes". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 100 (5): 2760–5. Bibcode:2003PNAS..100.2760W. doi:10.1073/pnas.0538072100. PMC 151414. PMID 12598644.
- ↑ "Strains of Bacillus thuringiensis insecticidal compositions containing the same US5147640A". September 1992. Retrieved 2020-07-27.
- ↑ "Pure annonin and a process for the preparation thereof US 4689232 A". August 1987. Retrieved 2020-07-27.
- ↑ 21.0 21.1 Kavanagh F, Hervey A, Robbins WJ (September 1951). "Antibiotic substances from basidiomycetes: VIII. Pleurotus multilus (Fr.) Sacc. and Pleurotus passeckerianus Pilat". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 37 (9): 570–574. Bibcode:1951PNAS...37..570K. doi:10.1073/pnas.37.9.570. PMC 1063423. PMID 16589015.
- ↑ de Mattos-Shipley KM, Foster GD, and Bailey AM (June 2017). "Insights into the classical genetics of Clitopilus passeckerianus – the pleuromutilin producing mushroom". Frontiers in Microbiology. 8: Article 1056. doi:10.3389/fmicb.2017.01056. PMC 5465285. PMID 28649239.
- ↑ Beekman AM, Barrow RA (2014). "Fungal metabolites as pharmaceuticals". Australian Journal of Chemistry. 67 (6): 827–843. doi:10.1071/ch13639.
- ↑ Procópio RE, Silva IR, Martins MK, Azevedo JL, Araújo JM (2012). "Antibiotics produced by Streptomyces". The Brazilian Journal of Infectious Diseases. 16 (5): 466–71. doi:10.1016/j.bjid.2012.08.014. PMID 22975171.
- ↑ Kano S (May 2014). "Artemisinin-based combination therapies and their introduction in Japan". Kansenshogaku Zasshi. 88 (3 Suppl 9–10): 18–25. PMID 24979951.
- ↑ Saraiva RG, Dimopoulos G (2020). "Bacterial natural products in the fight against mosquito-transmitted tropical diseases". Natural Product Reports. 37 (3): 338–354. doi:10.1039/c9np00042a. PMID 31544193. S2CID 202731385.
- ↑ "Bleomycin". US National Library of Medicine. Retrieved 27 July 2020.
- ↑ Russo P, Frustaci A, Del Bufalo A, Fini M, Cesario A (2013). "Multitarget drugs of plants origin acting on Alzheimer's disease". Current Medicinal Chemistry. 20 (13): 1686–93. doi:10.2174/0929867311320130008. PMID 23410167.
- ↑ Koliou P, Karavasilis V, Theochari M, Pollack SM, Jones RL, Thway K (February 2018). "Advances in the treatment of soft tissue sarcoma: focus on eribulin". Cancer Management and Research. 10: 207–216. doi:10.2147/CMAR.S143019. PMC 5798537. PMID 29440930.
- ↑ 30.0 30.1 "Bioprospecting: Pros and Cons" (PDF). Punjab Agricultural University. Retrieved 7 July 2021.
- ↑ "Pharmaceutical bioreactor / fermentor". American Pharmaceutical Review. Retrieved 7 July 2021.
- ↑ Ahmad B, Rehman MU, Amin I, Arif A, Rasool S, Bhat SA, Afzal I, Hussain I, Bilal S, Mir M (2015). "A review on pharmacological properties of zingerone (4-(4-hydroxy-3-methoxyphenyl)-2-butanone)". ScientificWorldJournal. 2015: Article 816364. doi:10.1155/2015/816364. PMC 4461790. PMID 26106644.
- ↑ "Microbial energy conversion" (PDF). American Society for Microbiology. Retrieved 7 July 2021.
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value (help). - ↑ "Success story: halichondrin B (NSC 609395) E7389 (NSC 707389)". Developmental Therapeutics Program, National Cancer Institute. Archived from the original on 2009-07-10.
- ↑ 36.0 36.1 Houghton PJ, Howes MJ, Lee CC, Steventon G (April 2007). "Uses and abuses of in vitro tests in ethnopharmacology: visualizing an elephant". Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 110 (3): 391–400. doi:10.1016/j.jep.2007.01.032. PMID 17317057.
- ↑ 37.0 37.1 Dahlin JL, Nissink JW, Strasser JM, Francis S, Higgins L, Zhou H, Zhang Z, Walters MA (March 2015). "PAINS in the assay: chemical mechanisms of assay interference and promiscuous enzymatic inhibition observed during a sulfhydryl-scavenging HTS". Journal of Medicinal Chemistry. 58 (5): 2091–2113. doi:10.1021/jm5019093. PMC 4360378. PMID 25634295.
- ↑ 38.0 38.1 vanc. Missing or empty
|title=
(help) - ↑ vanc. Missing or empty
|title=
(help) - ↑ 40.0 40.1 vanc. Missing or empty
|title=
(help) - ↑ "Agriculture and Food". Green Peace Australia Pacific: What We Do: Food. Greenpeace. Archived from the original on 2008-09-19. Retrieved 2013-11-04.
- ↑ "A traditional brew leads to cancer cure". Smithsonian Institution: Migrations in history: Medical Technology. Smithsonian Institution. Archived from the original on 2014-06-21. Retrieved 2013-11-04.
- ↑ Hafstein VT (26 July 2004). "The Politics of Origins: Collective Creation Revisited". Journal of American Folklore. 117 (465): 300–315. doi:10.1353/jaf.2004.0073. S2CID 145691975.
- ↑ Karasov C (December 2001). "Focus: who reaps the benefits of biodiversity?". Environmental Health Perspectives. 109 (12): A582-7. doi:10.2307/3454734. JSTOR 3454734. PMC 1240518. PMID 11748021.
- ↑ vanc. Missing or empty
|title=
(help) - ↑ vanc. Missing or empty
|title=
(help) - ↑ "Method for controlling fungi on plants by the aid of a hydrophobic extracted neem oil". google.com. Retrieved 30 April 2018.
- ↑ 48.0 48.1 Sheridan C (May 2005). "EPO neem patent revocation revives biopiracy debate". Nature Biotechnology. 23 (5): 511–12. doi:10.1038/nbt0505-511. PMID 15877054. S2CID 29690410.
- ↑ "Rice lines bas 867 rt1117 and rt112". google.com. Archived from the original on 30 April 2018. Retrieved 30 April 2018.
- ↑ Mukherjee U (June 2008). "A study of the basmati case (India-US basmati rice dispute): The geographical indication perspective". SSRN. doi:10.2139/ssrn.1143209. S2CID 130991379. SSRN 1143209.
- ↑ Pallottini L, Garcia E, Kami J, Barcaccia G, Gepts P (1 May 2004). "The Genetic Anatomy of a Patented Yellow Bean". Crop Science. 44 (3): 968–977. doi:10.2135/cropsci2004.0968. Archived from the original on 18 April 2005.
- ↑ Goldberg D (2003). "Jack and the Enola Bean". TED Case Studies Number xxx. Danielle Goldberg. Archived from the original on 2013-11-10. Retrieved 2013-11-04.
- ↑ "US Patent Office rejects company's claim for bean commonly grown by Latin American farmers". American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS). April 2008.
- ↑ Maharaj, VJ, Senabe, JV, Horak RM (2008). "Hoodia, a case study at CSIR. Science real and relevant". 2nd CSIR Biennial Conference, CSIR International Convention Centre Pretoria, 17&18 November 2008: 4.
- ↑ Vermeylen S (2007). "Contextualizing 'Fair' and 'Equitable': The San's Reflections on the Hoodia Benefit-Sharing Agreement". Local Environment. 12 (4): 423–436. doi:10.1080/13549830701495252. S2CID 153467522.
- ↑ Wynberg R (2013-10-13). "Hot air over Hoodia". Grain: Publications: Seedling. Grain. Archived from the original on 2013-11-03. Retrieved 2013-11-03.
- ↑ "Nutrition | Unilever". Archived from the original on 2014-04-13. Retrieved 2014-04-10.
- ↑ "Africa suffers 36 cases of biopiracy". GhanaWeb. Archived from the original on January 24, 2013. Retrieved 31 March 2006.
- ↑ "Biopiracy - a new threat to indigenous rights and culture in Mexico" (PDF). Global Exchange. Archived from the original (PDF) on October 13, 2005. Retrieved 13 October 2005.
- ↑ "Biopiracy: the appropriation of indigenous peoples' cultural knowledge" (PDF). New England Law. Archived from the original (PDF) on September 25, 2003. Retrieved 27 February 2008.
- ↑ "Of patents & piⓇates". Genetic Resources Action International. Retrieved 18 July 2020.
- ↑ "Maca: the dubious aphrodisiac Chinese biopirates took from Peru". Dialogo Chino. 31 October 2019. Retrieved 18 July 2020.
- ↑ 63.0 63.1 "Know Instances of Patenting on the UES of Medicinal Plants in India". PIB, Ministry of Environment and Forests. May 6, 2010. Archived from the original on May 10, 2010.
- ↑ "The United Kingdom Select Committee on Environmental Audit 1999; Appendices to the Minutes of Evidence, Appendix 7: Trade Related Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPs) and Farmers' Rights". www.parliament.uk. Retrieved 18 July 2020.
- ↑ "Brazil to step up crackdown on "biopiracy"". Ruters. December 2010. Archived from the original on 7 September 2012. Retrieved 18 July 2020.
- ↑ "Mexican yellow bean patent finally cooked". PatentlyO. July 2009. Retrieved 27 July 2020.
- ↑ Chen JM (2006). "The Parable of the Seeds: Interpreting the Plant Variety Protection Act in Furtherance of Innovation Policy". Notre Dame Law Review. 81 (4): 105–166. SSRN 784189.
- ↑ "Cracking down on wildlife trafficking". Image. August 2012. Archived from the original on 12 August 2014.
CBD stating that the benefits arising from the use of genetic resources should be shared in a fair and equitable way (Rau, 2010)
- ↑ "Policy Commissions". International Chamber of Commerce: About ICC. International Chamber of Commerce. Archived from the original on 2013-11-02. Retrieved 2013-11-03.
- ↑ "The Nagoya Protocol on Access and Benefit-sharing". United Nations Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity. July 2020. Retrieved 2020-08-01.
- ↑ "Convention on Biological Diversity: List of parties". United Nations Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity. April 2011. Retrieved 2020-08-03.
- ↑ Shiva V (2007). "Bioprospecting as Sophisticated Biopiracy". Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society (in Turanci). 32 (2): 307–313. doi:10.1086/508502. ISSN 0097-9740. S2CID 144229002.
- ↑ 73.0 73.1 Millum J (2010). "How Should the Benefits of Bioprospecting Be Shared?". Hastings Center Report (in Turanci). 40 (1): 24–33. doi:10.1353/hcr.0.0227. ISSN 1552-146X. PMC 4714751. PMID 20169653.
- ↑ Eberlee J (2000-01-21). "Assessing the Benefits of Bioprospecting in Latin America" (PDF). IDRC Reports Online. IDRC. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-06-23. Retrieved 2013-11-03.
- ↑ Bisht TS, Sharma SK, Sati RC, Rao VK, Yadav VK, Dixit AK, Sharma AK, Chopra CS (March 2015). "Improvement of efficiency of oil extraction from wild apricot kernels by using enzymes". Journal of Food Science and Technology. 52 (3): 1543–51. doi:10.1007/s13197-013-1155-z. PMC 4348260. PMID 25745223.
- ↑ Cite error: Invalid
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Littattafai da albarkatu
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Haɗin waje
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]- Daga Afirka: Asirin Samun dama da raba fa'ida - wani rahoto na 2006 game da satar halittu a Afirka ta Cibiyar Edmonds
- Sanarwar Cape Town - Biowatch Afirka ta Kudu
- Ayyukan Al'amuran Halitta na Duniya (GRAIN)
- Masanin kimiyya na Indiya ya musanta zargin da ake yi na satar halittu - SciDev.[Inda Aka Ɗauko Hoto da ke shafi na 9]Net
- Tattaunawar 'biopiracy' ta Afirka ta yi zafi - SciDev.[Inda Aka Ɗauko Hoto da ke shafi na 9]Net
- Bioprospecting: bincike na halal ko 'biopiracy'? Archived 2022-08-18 at the Wayback Machine - SciDev.[Inda Aka Ɗauko Hoto da ke shafi na 9]Net
- Takardun rukuni na ETC a kan Biopiracy: Batutuwa sun haɗa da: patent na Monsanto a kan dukkan kwayoyin soya da aka gyara (EP0301749); Patents na Biology na Synthetic (na wucin gadi, siffofin rayuwa na musamman); Terminator Seed Technology; da dai sauransu. Batutuwan sun haɗa da: patent na jinsin Monsanto a kan dukkan soya da aka canza (EP0301749); Patents na Biology na Synthetic (na wucin gadi, siffofin rayuwa na musamman); Terminator Seed Technology; da dai sauransu.
- Wanene Mai Biodiversity, kuma Ta yaya Ya kamata a biya masu shi?, Plant Physiology, Afrilu 2004, Vol. 134, shafuffuka na 1295-1307
- Heald PJ (2001). "'Your Friend in the Rain Forest': An Essay on the Rhetoric of Biopiracy". SSRN Electronic Journal. doi:10.2139/ssrn.285177.
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