Kiwon shuke-shuke

Kiwon tsire-tsire shine kimiyyar canza halayen tsirrai don samar da halayen da ake so. An yi amfani da shi don inganta ingancin abinci mai gina jiki a cikin samfurori ga mutane da dabbobi. Makasudin kiwo na shuka shine samar da nau'ikan amfanin gona waɗanda ke alfahari da halaye na musamman kuma na musamman don aikace-aikace iri-iri. Abubuwan da aka fi magance su akai-akai akan halayen noma sune waɗanda ke da alaƙa da juriya da juriya na biotic da abiotic, ƙwayar hatsi ko haɓakar halittu, halaye masu inganci na ƙarshen amfani kamar ɗanɗano ko adadin takamaiman ƙwayoyin halitta (proteins, sugars, lipids, bitamin, fibers) da sauƙi na sarrafa (girbi, niƙa, yin burodi, malting, haɗawa, da sauransu).

Ana iya aiwatar da kiwo shuka ta hanyoyi daban-daban tun daga zaɓin tsire-tsire masu kyawawan halaye don yaduwa, zuwa hanyoyin da ke amfani da ilimin kwayoyin halitta da chromosomes, zuwa mafi hadaddun dabarun ƙwayoyin cuta. Kwayoyin halitta a cikin shuka su ne ke tantance irin nau'in halaye masu inganci ko ƙididdiga da za su kasance. Masu shayarwa suna ƙoƙarin ƙirƙirar takamaiman sakamako na tsire-tsire da yuwuwar sabbin nau'ikan tsire-tsire, kuma a cikin yin hakan, rage bambancin jinsin wannan nau'in zuwa takamaiman nau'ikan halittu.

Ana yin ta a duk duniya ta daidaikun mutane kamar masu lambu da manoma, da ƙwararrun masu kiwon shuka waɗanda ƙungiyoyi kamar cibiyoyin gwamnati, jami'o'i, ƙungiyoyin masana'antu na musamman ko cibiyoyin bincike ke aiwatar da shi. Hukumomin ci gaban kasa da kasa sun yi imanin cewa kiwon sabbin amfanin gona na da muhimmanci wajen tabbatar da wadatar abinci ta hanyar samar da sabbin nau'o'in da suke da yawan amfanin gona, masu jure wa cututtuka, masu jure fari ko kuma sun dace da yankuna daban-daban da yanayin girma.^[1]

Wani bincike na baya-bayan nan ya nuna cewa ba tare da kiwo ba, da Turai za ta samar da karancin amfanin gona na noma kashi 20 cikin 100 a cikin shekaru 20 da suka wuce, tare da cin karin hekta miliyan 21.6 (kadada miliyan 53) na fili tare da fitar da tan biliyan 4 (3.9×109 dogayen ton; 4.4) × 109 gajeriyar ton) na carbon. A halin yanzu ana ratsa nau'in alkama da aka kirkira don Maroko da tsire-tsire don ƙirƙirar sabbin iri ga arewacin Faransa. Waken waken soya, wanda a baya ake noma shi a kudancin Faransa, yanzu ana noman shi a kudancin Jamus.^{[2] [3]}

An fara kiwo da tsire-tsire ne da aikin noma na zaman lafiya, musamman ma yadda ake shuka tsire-tsire na farko na noma, al'adar da aka ƙiyasta tun shekaru 9,000 zuwa 11,000. Da farko manoman farko kawai sun zaɓi tsire-tsire na abinci tare da kyawawan halaye, kuma sun yi amfani da waɗannan a matsayin magabata ga tsararraki masu zuwa, wanda ya haifar da tarin halaye masu mahimmanci a kan lokaci.

Ya kasan ce an yi amfani da fasahar shuka a kasar Sin kafin 2000 KZ.

A shekara ta 500 KZ an kafa shuka sosai kuma ana yin sa.

Gregor Mendel (1822-84) ana daukarsa a matsayin "uban kwayoyin halitta". Gwaje-gwajen da ya yi game da haɓakar tsire-tsire ya kai ga kafa dokokin gado. Ƙwayoyin halitta sun ƙarfafa bincike don inganta samar da amfanin gona ta hanyar kiwo.

Ana amfani da kiwo na tsire-tsire na zamani akan kwayoyin halitta, amma tushen kimiyya ya fi girma, yana rufe ilmin kwayoyin halitta, cytology, systematics, physiology, pathology, entomology, chemistry, and statistics (biometrics). Har ila yau, ta haɓaka fasahar ta.

Wata babbar dabarar kiwo shuka ita ce zaɓi, tsarin zaɓin yaɗa tsire-tsire tare da kyawawan halaye da kuma kawar da ko "kulla" waɗanda ba su da kyawawan halaye.

Wata dabara kuma ita ce haɗe-haɗe da gangan na mutane na kusa ko na nesa don samar da sabbin nau'ikan amfanin gona ko layi tare da kyawawan kaddarorin. Tsire-tsire suna haɗe-haɗe don gabatar da halaye / kwayoyin halitta daga nau'in iri ɗaya ko layi zuwa sabon asalin halitta. Misali, ana iya haye fis ɗin da ke da juriya tare da fis mai girma amma mai sauƙi, makasudin gicciye shine gabatar da juriyar mildew ba tare da rasa halayen amfanin ƙasa ba. Za a ketare zuri'a daga gicciye tare da iyaye masu girma don tabbatar da cewa zuriyar sun kasance kamar iyaye masu girma, (na baya). Daga nan za a gwada zuriyar daga wannan giciye don samun amfanin gona (zaɓi, kamar yadda aka kwatanta a sama) kuma za a ƙara haɓaka juriya na mildew da tsire-tsire masu juriya. Hakanan ana iya ketare tsire-tsire da kansu don samar da nau'ikan iri don kiwo. Ana iya cire masu yin pollin ta hanyar amfani da jakunkunan pollination.

Kiwo na gargajiya ya dogara da yawa akan sake haɗe-haɗe tsakanin chromosomes don samar da bambancin kwayoyin halitta. Mai kiwon tsire-tsire na gargajiya na iya yin amfani da wasu fasahohin in vitro kamar su fusion na protoplast, ceton amfrayo ko mutagenesis (duba ƙasa) don samar da bambance-bambance da samar da tsire-tsire waɗanda ba za su wanzu a cikin yanayi ba.

Halayen da masu kiwo suka yi ƙoƙarin haɗawa a cikin tsire-tsire sun haɗa da:

1. Ingantacciyar inganci, kamar haɓakar abinci mai gina jiki, ingantaccen ɗanɗano, ko kyakkyawa mafi girma
2. Ƙara yawan amfanin gona
3. Ƙarfafa jurewar matsalolin muhalli (salinity, matsanancin zafin jiki, fari)
4. Juriya ga ƙwayoyin cuta, fungi da ƙwayoyin cuta
5. Ƙarfafa juriya ga kwari Haƙuri na herbicides
6. Tsawon lokacin ajiya don amfanin gona da aka girbe
7. Inganta inganci, kamar kara abinci mai gina jiki, ingantaccen dandano, ko mafi kyawun kyau

Abubuwan da suka shafi kiwon shukar kasuwanci na nasara an kafa su ne daga ƙarshen karni na 19. [bayani da ake bukata] Gartons Agricultural Plant Breeders a Ingila an kafa shi a cikin 1890s ta John Garton, wanda shine farkon wanda ya fara sayar da sabbin nau'ikan amfanin gona na noma da aka kirkira ta hanyar giciye-pollination. Gabatarwar kamfanin na farko shine  Abundance Oat, nau'in hatsi. Yana daya daga cikin nau'in hatsin noma na farko da aka haifa daga giciye mai sarrafawa, wanda aka gabatar da shi zuwa kasuwanci a cikin 1892.^[4]

A farkon karni na 20, masu shayarwa sun fahimci cewa binciken Gregor Mendel game da yanayin gadon da ba na bazuwar ba za a iya amfani da shi ga yawan shukar da aka samar ta hanyar pollination da gangan don yin hasashen mitar nau'ikan iri daban-daban. An haifi nau'in alkama don ƙara yawan amfanin gona na Italiya a lokacin abin da ake kira "Battle for Grain" (1925-1940). George Harrison Shull ya yi bayanin Heterosis. Yana bayyana halin zuriyar ƙayyadaddun gicciye don fifita iyaye biyu. Gano fa'idar heterosis don kiwo shuka ya haifar da haɓakar layukan da aka ƙirƙira waɗanda ke nuna fa'idar yawan amfanin ƙasa lokacin da aka ketare su. Masara ita ce nau'in farko inda aka yi amfani da heterosis sosai don samar da nau'ikan nau'ikan iri.

Hakanan an ƙirƙiri hanyoyin ƙididdiga don nazarin aikin kwayoyin halitta da bambance bambance-bambancen gado daga bambance-bambancen da yanayi ya haifar. A shekara ta 1933 wata muhimmiyar dabarar kiwo mai suna cytoplasmic male sterility (CMS), wadda aka yi a cikin masara, Marcus Morton Rhoades ya bayyana. CMS dabi'a ce da aka gada ta uwa wacce ke sa shuka ta samar da pollen maras kyau. Wannan yana ba da damar samar da hybrids ba tare da buƙatar cire kayan aiki ba.

Wadannan dabarun kiwo na farko sun haifar da karuwar yawan amfanin gona a Amurka a farkon karni na 20. Ba a samar da irin wannan yawan amfanin gona a wani wuri ba sai bayan yakin duniya na biyu, juyin juya hali na Green ya kara yawan amfanin gona a kasashe masu tasowa a cikin shekarun 1960.

Bayan Yaƙin Duniya na Biyu an ƙirƙiro dabaru da dama waɗanda ke ba masu shayarwa damar haɗa nau'ikan nau'ikan da ke da alaƙa da juna, da haifar da bambance-bambancen kwayoyin halitta ta hanyar wucin gadi.

Lokacin da aka ketare nau'ikan da ke da nisa, masu shayarwa suna amfani da dabaru na al'adun nama na shuka don samar da zuriya daga ma'aurata marasa 'ya'ya. An samar da kayan ciki da masu rikitarwa daga giciye na jinsin mutane masu dangantaka ko Genera waɗanda ba su saba da juna da juna ba. Ana kiran waɗannan giciye da Faɗin giciye. Misali, triticale hatsi shine alkama da hatsin rai matasan. Kwayoyin da ke cikin tsire-tsire waɗanda aka samo daga ƙarni na farko da aka halicce su daga gicciye sun ƙunshi adadin chromosomes marasa daidaituwa kuma sakamakon haka ya kasance bakararre. An yi amfani da colchicine mai hana rarraba tantanin halitta don ninka adadin chromosomes a cikin tantanin halitta kuma don haka ba da damar samar da layi mai laushi.

Rashin samar da matasan na iya kasancewa saboda rashin dacewa kafin ko bayan hadi. Idan hadi zai yiwu tsakanin nau'in nau'i biyu ko nau'in jinsin halitta, mahaifar mahaifa na iya zubar da ciki kafin girma. Idan wannan ya faru, amfrayon da ke fitowa daga gicciye na musamman ko wani lokaci ana iya ceto shi kuma a yi al'adarsa don samar da tsire-tsire. Ana kiran irin wannan hanyar da ceton amfrayo. An yi amfani da wannan dabarar don samar da sabuwar shinkafa ga Afirka, giciye na musamman na shinkafa Oryza sativa na Asiya da shinkafar Afirka O. glaberrima.

Hakanan ana iya samar da matasan ta hanyar dabarar da ake kira protoplast fusion. A wannan yanayin ana haɗa protoplasts, yawanci a cikin filin lantarki. Za a iya sake haifar da sake haɗawa masu dacewa a cikin al'ada.

Ana amfani da mutagens na sinadarai kamar ethyl methanesulfonate (EMS) da dimethyl sulfate (DMS), radiation, da transposons don mutagenesis. Mutagenesis shine tsarar mutants. Mai kiwon yana fatan kyawawan halaye da za a haifa tare da sauran cultivars - wani tsari da aka sani da maye gurbi. Masu kiwon tsire-tsire na gargajiya suma suna haifar da bambance-bambancen kwayoyin halitta a cikin wani nau'in ta hanyar yin amfani da tsarin da ake kira somaclonal variation, wanda ke faruwa a cikin tsire-tsire da aka samar daga al'adun nama, musamman tsire-tsire waɗanda aka samo daga callus. Polyploidy da aka jawo, da ƙari ko cire chromosomes ta amfani da wata dabara da ake kira injiniyan chromosome kuma ana iya amfani da su.

Lokacin da aka haifar da kyawawan dabi'u a cikin nau'in nau'in, ana yin ƙetare da dama ga iyayen da aka fi so don yin sabon shuka kamar yadda iyaye suke so kamar yadda zai yiwu. Komawa ga misalan misalan ƙwanƙarar ƙwanƙwasa da ake hayewa tare da fis ɗin mai girma amma mai sauƙi, don sanya zuriyar giciye ta zama mai juriya kamar iyaye masu girma, za a ƙetare zuriyar zuwa ga wannan iyayen har tsararraki da yawa ( Duba baya). Wannan tsari yana kawar da yawancin gudunmawar kwayoyin halitta na iyaye masu jurewar mildew. Don haka kiwo na gargajiya tsari ne mai zagaye. [ana bukatar bayani]

Tare da dabarun kiwo na gargajiya, mai kiwon bai san ainihin abin da aka gabatar da kwayoyin halitta ga sabbin cultivars ba. Wasu masana kimiyya saboda haka suna jayayya cewa tsire-tsire da aka samar ta hanyoyin kiwo na gargajiya yakamata su yi tsarin gwajin aminci iri ɗaya kamar tsire-tsire da aka gyara. Akwai lokuta inda tsire-tsire da ake kiwo ta hanyar amfani da dabarun gargajiya ba su dace da amfani da ɗan adam ba, misali gubar solanine da aka ƙara ba da gangan ba zuwa matakan da ba za a yarda da su ba a wasu nau'ikan dankalin turawa ta hanyar kiwo. Sabbin nau'ikan dankalin turawa galibi ana yin gwajin matakan solanine kafin isa kasuwa. [abubuwan da ake bukata]

Ko da tare da na baya-bayan nan a cikin kiwo na zamani wanda ke taimaka wa fasahar kere-kere, haɗa dabi'u yana ɗaukar matsakaicin tsararraki bakwai don amfanin gona da ake yaɗawa, tara don yin takin kai, da sha bakwai don yin pollination.^[5][6]

Kiwon tsire-tsire na zamani na iya amfani da dabarun ilimin halitta don zaɓar, ko kuma a cikin yanayin gyare-gyaren kwayoyin halitta, don saka, halaye masu kyau a cikin tsirrai. Aiwatar da fasahar kere-kere ko ilmin halitta kuma ana kiranta da kiwo.

Wasu lokuta nau'ikan kwayoyin halitta daban-daban na iya yin tasiri ga kyawawan halaye a cikin kiwo. Amfani da kayan aiki irin su alamomin kwayoyin halitta ko zanen yatsan DNA na iya taswirar dubban kwayoyin halitta. Wannan yana ba masu kiwon shuka damar tantance ɗimbin tsire-tsire ga waɗanda suka mallaki yanayin sha'awa. Binciken ya dogara ne akan kasancewar ko rashin wani takamaiman kwayar halitta kamar yadda hanyoyin dakin gwaje-gwaje suka ƙayyade, maimakon a gano ainihin yanayin da aka bayyana a cikin shuka. Manufar zaɓin taimakon alamar, ko nazarin kwayoyin halittar shuka, shine gano wuri da aiki (phenotype) na ƙwayoyin halitta daban-daban a cikin kwayoyin halitta. Idan an gano dukkan kwayoyin halitta yana kaiwa ga jerin kwayoyin halitta. [abubuwan da ake bukata] [bayani da ake buƙata] Duk tsire-tsire suna da girma dabam dabam da tsayin genomes tare da kwayoyin halitta waɗanda ke ƙididdige sunadaran sunadaran, amma da yawa kuma iri ɗaya ne. Idan an gano wurin da kwayoyin halitta suke da kuma aikinsu a cikin nau'in tsiro guda daya, ana iya samun irin wannan kwayar halitta mai kama da ita a wani wuri makamancin haka a cikin wani nau'in kwayar halitta mai alaka.^[7]

Ana iya samar da tsire-tsire masu homozygous tare da kyawawan halaye daga tsire-tsire masu farawa na heterozygous, idan ana iya samar da kwayar haploid tare da allele na waɗannan halayen, sannan a yi amfani da su don yin haploid mai ninki biyu. Haploid mai ninki biyu zai zama homozygous don halayen da ake so. Bugu da ƙari kuma, ana iya amfani da tsire-tsire iri biyu na homozygous daban-daban waɗanda aka kirkira ta wannan hanyar don samar da ƙarni na shuke-shuken matasan F1 waɗanda ke da fa'idodin heterozygosity da mafi girman kewayon halayen halayen. Don haka, tsire-tsire na heterozygous ɗaya wanda aka zaɓa don kyawawan halayensa za'a iya canza shi zuwa nau'in heterozygous (F1 hybrid) ba tare da larura na haifuwa na ciyayi ba amma sakamakon giciye na layin homozygous biyu/biyu na haploid da aka samu daga asalin shukar da aka zaɓa. Al'adun nama na shuka na iya haifar da haploid ko layukan shuka na haploid biyu da tsararraki. Wannan yana yanke bambance-bambancen jinsin da aka ɗauka daga nau'in shuka don zaɓar kyawawan halaye waɗanda zasu ƙara dacewa da daidaikun mutane. Yin amfani da wannan hanya yana rage buƙatar kiwo da yawa na tsire-tsire don samun tsararrun da suka yi kama da halayen da ake so, ta yadda za a adana lokaci mai yawa akan nau'in halitta iri ɗaya. Akwai dabaru da yawa na shuka nama waɗanda za a iya amfani da su don cimma tsire-tsire na haploid, amma al'adun microspore a halin yanzu shine mafi alƙawarin samar da mafi yawan lambobi daga cikinsu.^[7]

Ana samun gyare-gyaren kwayoyin halitta ta hanyar ƙara takamaiman kwayar halitta ko kwayoyin halitta zuwa shuka, ko kuma ta hanyar kayar da kwayar halitta tare da RNAi, don samar da nau'in halitta mai kyawawa. Tsire-tsire da ke haifar da ƙara kwayar halitta ana kiran su da tsire-tsire masu canzawa. Idan don gyare-gyaren kwayoyin halitta na nau'in ko na tsire-tsire masu tsire-tsire ana amfani da su a ƙarƙashin ikon masu tallata su na asali, to ana kiran su tsire-tsire cisgenic. Wani lokaci gyare-gyaren kwayoyin halitta na iya samar da shuka mai dabi'a ko halayen da ake so da sauri fiye da kiwo na gargajiya saboda yawancin kwayoyin halittar shuka ba su canza ba.

Don gyara halittar shuka, dole ne a ƙera tsarin halittar ta yadda shukar za ta bayyana ko za a cire. Don yin wannan, mai talla don fitar da rubutun da jerin ƙarewa don dakatar da rubuta sabon kwayar halitta, kuma dole ne a gabatar da kwayoyin halitta ko kwayoyin halitta na sha'awa ga shuka. Hakanan an haɗa alamar zaɓin tsire-tsire masu canzawa. A cikin dakin gwaje-gwaje, juriya na ƙwayoyin cuta alama ce da aka saba amfani da ita: Tsire-tsire waɗanda aka samu nasarar sākewa za su girma akan kafofin watsa labarai masu ɗauke da maganin rigakafi; shuke-shuken da ba a canza ba za su mutu. A wasu lokuta ana cire alamomi don zaɓi ta hanyar tsallakewa tare da shukar iyaye kafin sakin kasuwanci.

Ana iya shigar da ginin a cikin kwayoyin halitta ta hanyar sake hadewar kwayoyin halitta ta hanyar amfani da kwayoyin Agrobacterium tumefaciens ko A. rhizogenes, ko ta hanyar kai tsaye kamar bindigar kwayar halitta ko microinjection. Yin amfani da ƙwayoyin cuta na shuka don shigar da abubuwan gina jiki a cikin tsire-tsire ma abu ne mai yuwuwa, amma dabarar ta iyakance ta hanyar kewayon ƙwayoyin cuta. Misali, kwayar cutar mosaic na Farin kabeji (CaMV) kawai tana cutar da farin kabeji da nau'ikan da ke da alaƙa. Wani ƙayyadaddun ƙwayoyin cuta na ƙwayoyin cuta shi ne cewa ba a saba ba da kwayar cutar zuwa ga zuriya ba, don haka kowace shuka dole ne a yi ta allurar.

Yawancin shuke-shuke transgenic da aka saki a halin yanzu suna iyakance ga tsire-tsire waɗanda suka gabatar da juriya ga kwari da ciyawa. Ana samun juriyar kwari ta hanyar shigar da kwayar halitta daga Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) wanda ke ɓoye sunadaran da ke da guba ga wasu kwari. Misali, auduga bollworm, kwaro na auduga na kowa, yana ciyar da auduga Bt zai sha guba kuma ya mutu. Herbicides yawanci suna aiki ta hanyar ɗaure wasu enzymes na shuka da hana ayyukansu. Enzymes da herbicide ke hana su ana kiran su da "wurin manufa" na herbicide. Ana iya ƙirƙira juriyar ciyawa zuwa amfanin gona ta hanyar bayyana sigar furotin da aka yi niyya wanda ba a hana ciyawa ba. Wannan ita ce hanyar da ake amfani da ita don samar da tsire-tsire masu jurewa glyphosate ("Roundup Ready").

gyare-gyaren kwayoyin halitta na iya ƙara ƙara yawan amfanin ƙasa ta hanyar ƙara jurewar damuwa zuwa yanayin da aka ba. Matsaloli kamar bambancin zafin jiki, ana yin siginar shukar ta hanyar ɗumbin ƙwayoyin sigina waɗanda za su kunna ma'aunin rubutu don daidaita maganganun kwayoyin halitta. An nuna wuce gona da iri na takamaiman kwayoyin halittar da ke cikin haɓakawar sanyi don samar da ƙarin juriya ga daskarewa, wanda shine sanadin gama gari na asarar amfanin gona. ^[8]

Canjin kwayoyin halitta na tsire-tsire waɗanda zasu iya samar da magunguna (da kuma sinadarai na masana'antu), wani lokaci ana kiranta pharmating, wani sabon yanki ne mai tsattsauran ra'ayi na kiwo..^[9]

Muhawarar da ta shafi abinci da aka gyara a cikin shekarun 1990 ta kai kololuwa a cikin 1999 dangane da yadda kafafen yada labarai da kuma hasashe na hadari, kuma ta ci gaba a yau – alal misali, “Jamus ta jefa nauyinta a baya ga ci gaban Turai na ci gaba da bunkasar amfanin gona da aka gyara ta hanyar hana dasa shuki da yawa. iri-iri na masara mai jure kwari." Muhawarar ta ƙunshi tasirin muhalli na tsire-tsire da aka gyaggyarawa, amincin abincin da aka gyara da kuma ra'ayoyin da aka yi amfani da su don kimanta aminci kamar daidaitattun daidaito. Irin wannan damuwa ba sabon abu bane ga shuka kiwo. Yawancin ƙasashe suna da tsarin tsari don taimakawa don tabbatar da cewa sabbin nau'ikan amfanin gona da ke shiga kasuwa suna da aminci kuma suna biyan bukatun manoma. Misalai sun haɗa da rajista iri-iri, tsarin iri, izini na tsari don tsire-tsire na GM, da sauransu.

Muhawarar da ta shafi abinci da aka gyara a cikin 1990 ta kai kololuwa a cikin 1999 fim da yadda labaran yada labarai da kuma hasashe na hadari, kuma ta ci gaba a yau – alal misali, “Jamus ta jefa nauyin a baya ga ci gaban Turai na ci gaba da bunkasa amfani gona da aka gyara ta hanyar hana dasa shuki da yawa. iri-iri na masara mai jure kwari." Muhawarar ta kunna bayan na Tsi-tsire da aka gyaggyarawa, abinci da aka gyara da kuma ra'ayoyin da aka yi amfani da su don masanan kamar daidaitattun masana. Irin wannan damuwa ba sabon abu bane ga shuka kiwo.aye yawan suna da tsarin don tabbatar da cewa sabbin nau'ikan amfanin gona da ke shiga kasuwa suna da samfuran kuma suna biyan manoma. Misalai sun haɗa da rajista iri-iri, tsarin iri, izini na tsari don Tsi-tsire na GM, da sauransu..^[10]

Tun daga shekarar 2020 koyan inji - kuma musamman koyan injuna mai zurfi - kwanan nan ya zama mafi yawan amfani da su a cikin phenotyping. Kwamfuta hangen nesa ta amfani da ML ya sami babban ci gaba kuma yanzu ana amfani da shi ga ganyen phenotyping da sauran ayyukan phenotyping da idanun ɗan adam ke yi. Pound et al. 2017 da Singh et al. 2016 sune misalai na musamman na aikace-aikacen da aka yi nasara da wuri da kuma nuna yadda ake amfani da tsarin gabaɗaya a cikin nau'ikan tsire-tsire masu yawa. Waɗannan hanyoyin za su yi aiki mafi kyau tare da manyan, fa'idodin buɗaɗɗen bayanan jama'a.^[11]

Watson et al ya gabatar da kiwo cikin sauri. 2018. Classical (an yi ɗan adam) phenotyping a lokacin saurin kiwo kuma yana yiwuwa, ta amfani da hanyar da Richard et al. 2015. Kamar yadda na 2020 ana tsammanin cewa SB da phenotyping mai sarrafa kansa, hade, za su samar da ingantattun sakamako - duba § Phenotyping da hankali na wucin gadi a sama..^[11]

Dandalin NGS ya ƙi ƙwaƙƙwaran lokaci da farashin da ake buƙata don jeri tare da sauƙaƙe gano SNP a cikin ƙirar ƙira da shuke-shuken da ba samfuri ba. Wannan kuma ya haifar da yin amfani da manyan alamomin SNP a cikin hanyoyin zaɓe na genomic waɗanda ke nufin tsinkayar ƙimar kiwo na genomic / GEBVs na genotypes a cikin yawan jama'a. Wannan hanya na iya ƙara daidaitattun zaɓi kuma rage lokacin kowane sake zagayowar kiwo. An yi amfani da ita a cikin amfanin gona daban-daban kamar masara, alkama, da sauransu.

Haɓaka tsire-tsire (PPB) shine lokacin da manoma suka shiga cikin shirin inganta amfanin gona tare da damar da za su yanke shawara da ba da gudummawa ga tsarin bincike a matakai daban-daban. Hakanan ana iya amfani da hanyoyin haɗin kai don inganta amfanin gona lokacin da ake amfani da fasahar halittun shuka don inganta amfanin gona. Tsarin aikin gona na gida da bambancin kwayoyin halitta suna ƙarfafa ta shirye-shiryen haɗin gwiwa, kuma sakamakon yana haɓaka ta hanyar ilimin manoma game da ingancin da ake buƙata da kuma kimanta yanayin da aka yi niyya.^[12]

Wani nazari da aka yi a shekarar 2019 kan kiwo na tsiro ya nuna cewa bai samu karbuwa sosai ba duk da nasarar da aka samu na samar da nau’in iri da ingantattun nau’o’in iri da ingantattun nau’o’in abinci mai gina jiki, da kuma yuwuwar irin wadannan ingantattun iri da manoma za su karbe. Wannan bita ya kuma gano kiwo shuka don samun ingantacciyar farashi/ riba fiye da hanyoyin da ba sa hannu ba, kuma ya ba da shawarar haɗa shukar shuka tare da kiwo na shukar juyin halitta.^[13]

Kiwon tsire-tsire na juyin halitta yana bayyana ayyuka waɗanda ke amfani da yawan jama'a tare da nau'ikan genotypes waɗanda aka girma ƙarƙashin gasa na zaɓin yanayi. Rayuwa a cikin yanayin noman amfanin gona gama gari shine hanyar da ta fi dacewa ta zaɓi, maimakon zaɓi kai tsaye ta masu noma da masu kiwo. Tsirrai guda ɗaya waɗanda aka fi so a ƙarƙashin yanayin girma, kamar muhalli da kayan aiki, suna ba da gudummawar iri ga tsara na gaba fiye da waɗanda ba su dace ba. Bankin Gene na Nepal ya sami nasarar amfani da kiwo na tsiron da aka yi amfani da shi don adana bambance-bambancen nau'in shuka a cikin shinkafa Jumli Marshi tare da rage kamuwa da cutar fashewa. Hakanan an yi amfani da waɗannan ayyukan a cikin Nepal tare da ƙauyen wake.^[14]

A cikin 1929, Harlan da Martini sun ba da shawarar hanyar shuka shuka tare da yawan jama'a daban-daban ta hanyar haɗa adadin iri iri na F2 da aka samu daga giciye 378 tsakanin nau'ikan sha'ir 28 daban-daban. A cikin 1938, Harlan da Martini sun nuna juyin halitta ta zaɓin yanayi a cikin jama'a masu ƙarfi kamar yadda wasu 'yan nau'ikan da suka mamaye wasu wurare sun kusan bace a wasu; ire-iren da ba su da kyau sun bace ko'ina.^[15]

An yi amfani da yawan kiwo na juyin halitta don kafa tsarin sarrafa tsire-tsire-tsari. Misalai sun haɗa da sha'ir, inda masu shayarwa suka sami damar haɓaka juriya ga Rynchosporium secalis scald sama da ƙarni 45. Wani aikin kiwo na juyin halitta ya haɓaka yawan adadin waken soya na F5 akan ƙasa wanda ƙwayar waken waken nematode ya mamaye kuma ya sami damar haɓaka adadin tsire-tsire masu juriya daga kashi 5% zuwa 40%. Cibiyar Nazarin Noma ta Duniya a Busassun wurare (ICARDA) an haɗe shukar shukar juyin halitta tare da kiwo shuka don baiwa manoma damar zaɓar irin nau'ikan da suka dace da bukatunsu a cikin muhallin su.^[16]

Ƙoƙari mai tasiri na 1956 da Coit A. Suneson ya yi don daidaita wannan tsarin ya ƙirƙira kalmar kiwo na tsire-tsire kuma ya kammala cewa tsararrun 15 na zaɓin yanayi suna da sha'awar samar da sakamakon da ke da gasa tare da kiwo na al'ada. Kiwo na juyin halitta yana ba da damar aiki tare da girman yawan shuka fiye da kiwo na al'ada. Hakanan an yi amfani da shi tare da ayyuka na al'ada don haɓaka layukan amfanin gona iri-iri da iri ɗaya don ƙarancin tsarin aikin noma waɗanda ke da yanayin damuwa mara tabbas.^[17]

An tsara shuke-shuke na juyin halitta zuwa matakai huɗu: ^[18]

• Mataki na 1: An ƙirƙiri bambance-bambancen kwayoyin halitta, misali ta hanyar giciye na hannu na nau'ikan da ake shukawa ko gaurayawan ciyayi a cikin ƙetare nau'ikan.
• Mataki na 2: Yawan iri
• Mataki na 3: Daga nan sai a gauraya iri na kowane giciye don samar da ƙarni na farko na yawan Jama'ar Giciye (CCP). Dukan zuriya ana shuka su don girma da kafa iri. Yayin da adadin tsire-tsire a cikin yawan jama'a ke ƙaruwa, ana ajiye wani kaso na iri da aka girbe don shuka.
• Mataki na 4: Za a iya amfani da iri don ci gaba da haifuwar tsire-tsire ko azaman mafari don ƙoƙarin kiwo na al'ada.

Batutuwan da ke fuskantar kiwo a nan gaba sun hada da rashin filin noma, yanayin noman da ke kara tsananta da kuma bukatar tabbatar da isasshen abinci, wanda ya hada da samar da isasshen abinci ga al’ummar duniya. Shuka amfanin gona na buƙatar samun damar girma a wurare da yawa don ba da damar shiga duniya, wanda ya haɗa da magance matsalolin ciki har da jurewar fari. An ba da shawarar cewa ana iya samun mafita a duniya ta hanyar tsarin kiwo, tare da ikon zabar takamaiman kwayoyin halittar da ke ba da damar amfanin gona a matakin da ake so. Wani batu da ke fuskantar noma shi ne hasarar kabilanci da sauran nau'in gida da ke da bambancin da ka iya samun kwayoyin halitta masu amfani don daidaita yanayin yanayi a nan gaba.^[16]

Kiwo na al'ada da gangan yana iyakance phenotype filastik tsakanin genotypes kuma yana iyakance bambance-bambance tsakanin genotypes. Haɗin kai baya ƙyale amfanin gona ya dace da canjin yanayi da sauran matsalolin ƙwayoyin cuta da matsalolin ƙwayoyin cuta.^[16]

Hakkokin masu shuka shuki lamari ne mai mahimmanci da jayayya. Samar da sabbin nau'o'in) wanda ke neman kare aikin su da kuma tattara kudaden sarauta ta hanyar yarjejeniyar kasa da kasa da kasa da aka kafa bisa haƙƙin mallaka na fasaha. Abubuwan da ke da alaƙa suna da sarƙaƙƙiya. A cikin mafi sauƙi, masu sukar ƙa'idodin ƙayyadaddun ƙa'idodi suna jayayya cewa, ta hanyar haɗuwa da matsalolin fasaha da tattalin arziki, masu shayarwa na kasuwanci suna rage nau'o'in halittu kuma suna hana mutane (kamar manoma) daga haɓakawa da cinikin iri a matakin yanki. Ƙoƙarin ƙarfafa haƙƙin masu kiwo, alal misali, ta hanyar tsawaita lokacin kariya iri-iri.

Dokokin mallakar ilimi don tsire-tsire galibi suna amfani da ma'anoni waɗanda galibi sun haɗa da daidaitattun kwayoyin halitta da bayyanar da ba ta canzawa a cikin tsararraki. Wadannan ma'anar doka na kwanciyar hankali sun bambanta da amfani da ilimin noma na gargajiya, wanda ke la'akari da kwanciyar hankali dangane da yadda amfanin gona ko ingancin amfanin gona ya kasance a duk wurare da kuma tsawon lokaci.^[18]

Tun daga 2020, ƙa'idodi a Nepal kawai suna ba da izinin yin rajista ko saki nau'ikan iri. Yawan tsire-tsire na juyin halitta da yawancin jinsin ƙasa polymorphic ne kuma basu cika waɗannan ka'idoji ba.^[14]

Uniform da kwanciyar hankali cultivars na iya zama rashin isassun ma'amala da sauyin yanayi da abubuwan damuwa. Masu kiwon shuka sun mayar da hankali wajen gano amfanin gona da zai tabbatar da amfanin gona a karkashin wadannan yanayi; hanyar cimma wannan ita ce gano nau'ikan amfanin gona da ke jure yanayin fari tare da ƙarancin nitrogen. A bayyane yake cewa kiwo na shuka yana da mahimmanci don noma na gaba ya ci gaba da rayuwa yayin da yake baiwa manoma damar samar da amfanin gona mai jure damuwa don haka inganta wadatar abinci. A cikin ƙasashen da ke fama da matsanancin sanyi irin su Iceland, Jamus da gabas a Turai, masu shayarwa suna da hannu wajen kiwo don jure sanyi, ci gaba da dusar ƙanƙara, sanyi-fari (bushewa daga iska da hasken rana a ƙarƙashin sanyi) da matakan danshi mai yawa. a cikin ƙasa a cikin hunturu.^[19]

Kiwo ba tsari ne mai sauri ba, wanda ke da mahimmanci musamman lokacin kiwo don inganta cuta. Matsakaicin lokaci daga fahimtar ɗan adam na sabon cutar cututtukan fungal zuwa sakin amfanin gona mai juriya ga wannan ƙwayar cuta shine aƙalla shekaru goma sha biyu..^[6][20]

Lokacin da aka haifar da sababbin nau'o'in tsire-tsire ko cultivars, dole ne a kiyaye su kuma a yada su. Wasu tsire-tsire ana yada su ta hanyar jima'i yayin da wasu kuma ana yada su ta hanyar iri. Abubuwan da ake yada iri suna buƙatar takamaiman kulawa akan tushen iri da hanyoyin samarwa don kiyaye amincin shukar sakamakon. Warewa yana da mahimmanci don hana kamuwa da giciye tare da tsire-tsire masu alaƙa ko haɗuwa da iri bayan girbi. Keɓewa yawanci ana samun ta ta hanyar shuka nisa amma a cikin wasu amfanin gona, ana rufe tsire-tsire a cikin greenhouses ko keji (mafi yawan amfani da su yayin samar da matasan F1).

Kiwon tsire-tsire na zamani, ko na gargajiya ko ta hanyar injiniyanci, yana zuwa tare da al'amurran da suka shafi damuwa, musamman game da amfanin gona. Tambayar ko kiwo na iya yin mummunan tasiri akan darajar abinci mai gina jiki shine tsakiya a wannan batun. Ko da yake an ɗan yi bincike kai tsaye a wannan fanni, akwai alamun kimiyya cewa, ta hanyar fifita wasu al'amura na ci gaban shuka, wasu al'amura na iya ja baya. Wani binciken da aka buga a cikin Journal of the American College of Nutrition in 2004, mai suna Canje-canje a cikin Bayanan Abincin Abinci na USDA don amfanin gona na 43, 1950 zuwa 1999, idan aka kwatanta da nazarin abinci mai gina jiki na kayan lambu da aka yi a 1950 da 1999, kuma ya sami raguwa mai yawa a cikin shida na 13 na gina jiki da aka auna, ciki har da 6% na furotin da 38% na riboflavin. An kuma sami raguwar alli, phosphorus, iron da ascorbic acid. Binciken, wanda aka gudanar a Cibiyar Biochemical, Jami'ar Texas a Austin, ya ƙare a taƙaice: "Muna ba da shawarar cewa duk wani raguwa na gaske ana iya bayyana shi cikin sauƙi ta hanyar canje-canjen da aka noma tsakanin 1950 zuwa 1999, wanda za'a iya samun ciniki tsakanin 1950 zuwa 1999. kayan amfanin gona da abubuwan gina jiki.^[21]

Kiwo shuka na iya ba da gudummawa ga samar da abinci a duniya saboda kayan aiki ne mai tsada don haɓaka ƙimar abinci mai gina jiki da amfanin gona. Haɓaka darajar abinci mai gina jiki don amfanin gonakin kiwo daga amfani da kimiyar nazari da fasahar fermentation an rubuta tun 1960; wannan kimiyya da fasaha sun ba masu kiwon kiwo damar tantance dubban samfurori a cikin ɗan ƙaramin lokaci, ma'ana masu kiwo za su iya gano babban aiki da sauri. Ci gaban kwayoyin halitta ya kasance mafi yawa a cikin vitro dry matter digestibility (IVDMD) wanda ya haifar da 0.7-2.5% karuwa, a kawai 1% karuwa a IVDMD Bos Taurus guda ɗaya wanda kuma aka sani da shanu na shanu ya ruwaito 3.2% karuwa a kullum. Wannan haɓakawa yana nuna kiwo tsire-tsire shine kayan aiki mai mahimmanci don tsara aikin noma na gaba don aiwatarwa a matakin ci gaba.

Tare da karuwar yawan jama'a, samar da abinci yana buƙatar karuwa da shi. An kiyasta cewa ana bukatar karuwar kashi 70 cikin 100 na samar da abinci nan da shekarar 2050 domin cimma sanarwar taron koli na duniya kan samar da abinci. Amma tare da gurɓacewar ƙasar noma, dasa yawan amfanin gona kawai ba wani zaɓi bane. Ana iya haɓaka sabbin nau'ikan tsire-tsire a wasu lokuta ta hanyar kiwo da ke haifar da haɓakar amfanin gona ba tare da dogaro da haɓakar ƙasa ba. Ana iya ganin misalin hakan a Asiya, inda samar da abinci ga kowane mutum ya karu sau biyu. An cimma hakan ne ta hanyar amfani da takin zamani kawai, amma ta hanyar amfani da ingantattun amfanin gona da aka kera musamman domin yankin.^[22][23]

Wasu masu sukar aikin noma sun yi iƙirarin cewa ba shi da ɗanɗano sosai don zama madaidaicin madadin noma na al'ada a cikin yanayi lokacin da rashin aikin yi na iya zama sakamakon wani ɓangare na haɓaka nau'ikan da ba su dace ba. An kiyasta cewa sama da kashi 95% na aikin noma ya dogara ne akan nau'ikan da aka saba da su na al'ada, duk da cewa yanayin samarwa da ake samu a cikin tsarin noma na al'ada ya sha bamban sosai saboda tsarin gudanarwa na musamman. Musamman ma, manoman kwayoyin halitta suna da ƙarancin abubuwan da ake samu fiye da masu noma na yau da kullun don sarrafa yanayin samar da su. Nau'in kiwo musamman dacewa da yanayi na musamman na aikin noma yana da mahimmanci ga wannan fannin don gane cikakken ƙarfinsa. Wannan yana buƙatar zaɓi don halaye kamar: ^[24]

• Amfani da ruwa
• Amfani da abinci mai gina jiki (musamman nitrogen da phosphorus)
• Gasar ciyawa
• Tolerance na sarrafa ciyawa na inji
• Tsayayya da annoba / cututtukan cututtuka
• Matsala da wuri (a matsayin hanyar guje wa wasu damuwa)
• Rashin haƙuri na damuwa (watau fari, gishiri, da dai sauransu...)

A halin yanzu, ƴan shirye-shiryen kiwo ne ake jagorantar aikin noma kuma har zuwa kwanan nan waɗanda suka magance wannan fannin gabaɗaya sun dogara ga zaɓin kai tsaye (watau zaɓi a cikin yanayin al'ada don halayen da ake ganin suna da mahimmanci ga aikin noma). Duk da haka, saboda bambanci tsakanin yanayin halitta da na al'ada yana da girma, nau'in genotype da aka bayar zai iya yin aiki daban-daban a kowane yanayi saboda hulɗar tsakanin kwayoyin halitta da muhalli (duba hulɗar kwayoyin halitta-muhalli). Idan wannan hulɗar ta yi tsanani sosai, ba za a iya bayyana wani muhimmin hali da ake buƙata don yanayin halitta ba a cikin yanayi na al'ada, wanda zai iya haifar da zaɓi na daidaitattun mutane. Don tabbatar da an gano nau'ikan da suka fi dacewa da su, masu ba da shawara na kiwo a yanzu suna inganta amfani da zaɓin kai tsaye (watau zaɓi a cikin yanayin da ake nufi) don yawancin halayen noma.

Akwai fasahohin kiwo na gargajiya da na zamani da yawa waɗanda za a iya amfani da su don haɓaka amfanin gona a aikin noma duk da haramcin da aka ƙera ta kwayoyin halitta. Misali, gicciye masu sarrafawa tsakanin mutane suna ba da damar sake haɗa nau'ikan nau'ikan kwayoyin halitta masu kyawu da kuma canja su zuwa zuriyar iri ta hanyoyin halitta. Hakanan za'a iya amfani da zaɓin taimakon mai alamar azaman kayan aikin bincike don sauƙaƙe zaɓin zuriyar da suka mallaki halayen da ake so, suna hanzarta aiwatar da kiwo. Wannan dabarar ta tabbatar da amfani musamman don shigar da kwayoyin halittar juriya zuwa sabbin wurare, da kuma ingantaccen zaɓi na yawancin ƙwayoyin juriya da aka yi da dala cikin mutum ɗaya. Alamar kwayoyin halitta ba a samuwa a halin yanzu don yawancin halaye masu mahimmanci, musamman ma masu rikitarwa waɗanda yawancin kwayoyin halitta ke sarrafawa.

• Thomas Andrew Knight
• Keith Downey
• Luther Burbank
• Nazareno Strampelli
• Niels Ebbesen Hansen
• Norman Borlaug
• Yvonne Aitken
• Ed Currie

 

1. ↑ "Doriane | Blog — Climate-Smart Plant Breeding Objectives". www.doriane.com. Retrieved 2023-03-01.
2. ↑ "Study published: The socio-economic and environmental values of plant breeding in the EU – hffa research" (in Jamusanci). Retrieved 2023-01-25.
3. ↑ Ceccarelli, S.; Grando, S.; Maatougui, M.; Michael, M.; Slash, M.; Haghparast, R.; Rahmanian, M.; Taheri, A.; Al-Yassin, A.; Benbelkacem, A.; Labdi, M.; Mimoun, H.; Nachit, M. (December 2010). "Plant breeding and climate changes". The Journal of Agricultural Science (in Turanci). 148 (6): 627–637. doi:10.1017/S0021859610000651. ISSN 1469-5146. S2CID 86237270.
4. ↑ Spring Seed Catalogue 1899, Gartons Limited
5. ↑ Norero, Daniel (2018-06-20). "Unfairly demonized GMO crops can help fight malnutrition". Alliance for Science. Retrieved 2021-09-12.
6. ↑ ^{6.0 6.1} Shimelis, Hussein; Laing, Mark. "Timelines in conventional crop improvement: pre-breeding and breeding procedures". Australian Journal of Crop Science. Southern Cross Publishing: 1542–9. eISSN 1835-2707. ISSN 1835-2693. S2CID 55486617. Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "Shimelis-Laing-2012" defined multiple times with different content
7. ↑ ^{7.0 7.1} Kasha, Ken (1999). "Biotechnology and world food supply". Genome. 42 (4): 642–645. doi:10.1139/g99-043. PMID 10464788. Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "Biotech and food supply" defined multiple times with different content
8. ↑ Wang, Wangxia; Vinocur, Basia; Altmann, Arie (2003). "Plant responses to drought, salinity and extreme temperatures: towards genetic engineering for stress tolerance". Planta. 218 (1): 1–14. Bibcode:2003Plant.218....1W. doi:10.1007/s00425-003-1105-5. PMID 14513379. S2CID 24400025.
9. ↑ Suzie Key; Julian K-C Ma & Pascal MW Drake (1 June 2008). "Genetically modified plants and human health". Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine. 101 (6): 290–298. doi:10.1258/jrsm.2008.070372. PMC 2408621. PMID 18515776.
10. ↑ Abdelfattah, Ahmed; Tack, Ayco J. M.; Wasserman, Birgit; Liu, Jia; Berg, Gabriele; Norelli, John; Droby, Samir; Wisniewski, Michael (2021). "Evidence for host–microbiome co-evolution in apple". New Phytologist (in Turanci). 234 (6): 2088–2100. doi:10.1111/nph.17820. ISSN 1469-8137. PMC 9299473 Check |pmc= value (help). PMID 34823272 Check |pmid= value (help). S2CID 244661193 Check |s2cid= value (help).
11. ↑ ^{11.0 11.1} Watt, Michelle; Fiorani, Fabio; Usadel, Björn; Rascher, Uwe; Muller, Onno; Schurr, Ulrich (2020-04-29). "Phenotyping: New Windows into the Plant for Breeders". Annual Review of Plant Biology. Annual Reviews. 71 (1): 689–712. doi:10.1146/annurev-arplant-042916-041124. ISSN 1543-5008. PMID 32097567. S2CID 211523980. Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "Watt-et-al-2020" defined multiple times with different content
12. ↑ Elings, A.; Almekinders, C. J. M.; Stam, P. (December 2001). "Introduction: Why focus thinking on participatory plant breeding". Euphytica. 122 (3): 423–424. doi:10.1023/A:1017923423714. S2CID 25146186.
13. ↑ Ceccarelli, Salvatore; Grando, Stefania (2019-10-02). "From participatory to evolutionary plant breeding". Farmers and Plant Breeding (in Turanci): 231–244. doi:10.4324/9780429507335-15. ISBN 9780429507335. S2CID 210580815.
14. ↑ ^{14.0 14.1} Joshi, B. K.; Ayer, D. K.; Gauchan, D.; Jarvis, D. (2020-10-13). "Concept and rationale of evolutionary plant breeding and its status in Nepal". Journal of Agriculture and Forestry University (in Turanci): 1–11. doi:10.3126/jafu.v4i1.47023. ISSN 2594-3146. S2CID 231832089 Check |s2cid= value (help). Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "nepal-evolutionary" defined multiple times with different content
15. ↑ Ceccarelli, Salvatore; Grando, Stefania (2020-12-18). "Evolutionary Plant Breeding as a Response to the Complexity of Climate Change". iScience (in Turanci). 23 (12): 101815. Bibcode:2020iSci...23j1815C. doi:10.1016/j.isci.2020.101815. ISSN 2589-0042. PMC 7708809. PMID 33305179.
16. ↑ ^{16.0 16.1 16.2} Ceccarelli, S.; Grando, S.; Maatougui, M.; Michael, M.; Slash, M.; Haghparast, R.; Rahmanian, M.; Taheri, A.; Al-Yassin, A.; Benbelkacem, A.; Labdi, M.; Mimoun, H.; Nachit, M. (December 2010). "Plant breeding and climate changes". The Journal of Agricultural Science (in Turanci). 148 (6): 627–637. doi:10.1017/S0021859610000651. ISSN 1469-5146. S2CID 86237270. Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "breeding-climate" defined multiple times with different content
17. ↑ Phillips, S. L.; Wolfe, M. S. (August 2005). "Evolutionary plant breeding for low input systems". The Journal of Agricultural Science (in Turanci). 143 (4): 245–254. doi:10.1017/S0021859605005009. ISSN 1469-5146. S2CID 56219112.
18. ↑ ^{18.0 18.1} Döring, Thomas F.; Knapp, Samuel; Kovacs, Geza; Murphy, Kevin; Wolfe, Martin S. (October 2011). "Evolutionary Plant Breeding in Cereals—Into a New Era". Sustainability (in Turanci). 3 (10): 1944–1971. doi:10.3390/su3101944. ISSN 2071-1050. Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "evolutionary-cereals" defined multiple times with different content
19. ↑ Link, W.; Balko, C.; Stoddard, F.; Winter hardiness in faba bean: Physiology and breeding. Field Crops Research (5 February 2010). 115 (3): 287-296, page. 289|https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fcr.2008.08.004
20. ↑ Mahlein, A.-K.; Kuska, M.T.; Behmann, J.; Polder, G.; Walter, A. (2018-08-25). "Hyperspectral Sensors and Imaging Technologies in Phytopathology: State of the Art". Annual Review of Phytopathology. Annual Reviews. 56 (1): 535–558. doi:10.1146/annurev-phyto-080417-050100. ISSN 0066-4286. PMID 30149790. S2CID 52096158.
21. ↑ Davis, D.R.; Epp, M.D.; Riordan, H.D. (2004). "Changes in USDA Food Composition Data for 43 Garden Crops, 1950 to 1999". Journal of the American College of Nutrition. 23 (6): 669–682. doi:10.1080/07315724.2004.10719409. PMID 15637215. S2CID 13595345.
22. ↑ Tester, Mark; Langridge, Peter (February 2010). "Breeding technologies to increase crop production in a changing world". Science. 327 (5967): 818–822. Bibcode:2010Sci...327..818T. doi:10.1126/science.1183700. PMID 20150489. S2CID 9468220.
23. ↑ Haddad, Lawrence; Godfray, H. Charles J.; Beddington, John R.; Crute, Ian R.; Lawrence, David; Muir, James F.; Pretty, Jules; Robinson, Sherman; Thomas, Sandy M.; Toulmin, Camilla (12 February 2010). "Food security: the challenge of feeding 9 billion people". Science. 327 (5967): 812–818. Bibcode:2010Sci...327..812G. doi:10.1126/science.1185383. PMID 20110467.
24. ↑ Lammerts van Bueren, E.T.; S.S. Jones; L. Tamm; K.M. Murphy; J.R. Myers; C. Leifert; M.M. Messmer (2010). "The need to breed crop varieties suitable for organic farming, using wheat, tomato and broccoli as examples: A review". NJAS - Wageningen Journal of Life Sciences. 58 (3–4): 193–205. doi:10.1016/j.njas.2010.04.001.